The functional state of a person characterizes his activity in a specific direction, in specific conditions, with a specific supply of vital energy. A.B. Leonova emphasizes that the concept of a functional state is introduced to characterize the efficiency side of a person's activity or behavior. We are talking about the ability of a person in a particular state to perform a certain type of activity.

The state of a person can be described using a variety of manifestations: changes in the functioning of physiological systems (central nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, motor, endocrine, etc.), shifts in the course of mental processes (sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, imagination, attention), subjective experiences.

IN AND. Medvedev proposed the following definition of functional states: “The functional state of a person is understood as an integral complex of the available characteristics of those functions and qualities of a person that directly or indirectly determine the performance of an activity.”

Functional states are determined by many factors. Therefore, the human condition that arises in each specific situation is always unique. However, among the variety of special cases, some general classes of states are quite clearly distinguished:

- the state of normal life;

- pathological conditions;

- border conditions.

The criteria for assigning a state to a certain class are the reliability and cost of activity. Using the reliability criterion, the functional state is characterized in terms of a person's ability to perform activities at a given level of accuracy, timeliness, and reliability. According to the activity price indicators, an assessment of the functional state is given in terms of the degree of exhaustion of the body's forces and, ultimately, its impact on human health.

Based on these criteria, the entire set of functional states in relation to labor activity is divided into two main classes - permissible and inadmissible, or, as they are also called, permitted and prohibited.

The question of assigning one or another functional state to a certain class is specially considered in each individual case. So, it is a mistake to consider the state of fatigue as unacceptable, although it leads to a decrease in the efficiency of activity and is an obvious consequence of the depletion of psychophysical resources. Such degrees of fatigue are unacceptable, in which the efficiency of activity exceeds the lower limits of a given norm (assessment by the criterion of reliability) or symptoms of accumulation of fatigue appear, leading to overwork (assessment by the criterion of the price of activity).

Excessive strain on the physiological and psychological resources of a person is a potential source of various diseases. It is on this basis that normal and pathological conditions are distinguished. The last class is the subject of medical research. The presence of borderline conditions can lead to illness. So, typical consequences of prolonged stress experience are diseases of the cardiovascular system, digestive tract, neuroses. Chronic overwork is a borderline state in relation to overwork - a pathological condition of a neurotic type. Therefore, all borderline conditions in labor activity are classified as unacceptable. Oki require the introduction of appropriate preventive measures, in the development of which psychologists should also take a direct part.

Another classification of functional states is based on the criterion of the adequacy of a person's response to the requirements of the activity being performed. According to this concept, all human states are divided into two groups - states of adequate mobilization and states of dynamic mismatch.

The states of adequate mobilization are characterized by the degree of tension of a person's functional capabilities corresponding to the requirements imposed by specific conditions of activity. It can be disturbed under the influence of a variety of reasons: duration of activity, increased intensity of load, accumulation of fatigue, etc. Then there are states dynamic mismatch. Here, the efforts exceed those necessary to achieve this result of the activity.

Within this classification, almost all states of a working person can be characterized. The analysis of human states in the process of long-term work is usually carried out by studying the phases of the dynamics of working capacity, within which the formation and characteristic features of fatigue are specifically considered. Characteristics of activities in terms of the amount of effort expended on the work involves the allocation of different levels of intensity of activity.

The traditional field of study of functional states in psychology is the study of the dynamics of performance and fatigue. Fatigue is a natural reaction associated with increased stress during prolonged work. WITH On the physiological side, the development of fatigue indicates the depletion of the internal reserves of the body and the transition to less beneficial ways of functioning of the systems: the maintenance of the minute volume of blood flow is carried out by increasing the heart rate instead of increasing the stroke volume, motor reactions are realized by a large number of functional muscle units with a weakening of the force of contraction of individual muscle fibers and others. This finds expression in disturbances in the stability of vegetative functions, a decrease in the strength and speed of muscle contraction, a mismatch in mental functions, difficulties in the development and inhibition of conditioned reflexes. As a result, the pace of work slows down, accuracy, rhythm and coordination of movements are violated.

As fatigue grows, significant changes are observed in the course of various mental processes. This condition is characterized by a marked decrease in sensitivity various bodies feelings along with the growth of the inertia of these processes. This is manifested in an increase in the absolute and differential sensitivity thresholds, a decrease in the critical flicker fusion frequency, and an increase in the brightness and duration of successive images. Often, with fatigue, the reaction speed decreases - the time of a simple sensorimotor reaction and a choice reaction increase. However, a paradoxical (at first glance) increase in the speed of responses, accompanied by an increase in the number of errors, can also be observed.

Fatigue leads to the disintegration of the performance of complex motor skills. The most pronounced and significant signs of fatigue are impaired attention - the amount of attention narrows, the functions of switching and distribution of attention suffer, that is, conscious control over the performance of activities worsens.

On the part of the processes that ensure the memorization and preservation of information, fatigue primarily leads to difficulties in retrieving information stored in long-term memory. There is also a decrease in indicators of short-term memory, which is associated with a deterioration in the retention of information in the system of short-term storage.

The effectiveness of the thinking process is significantly reduced due to the predominance of stereotyped ways of solving problems in situations requiring new decisions, or violation of the purposefulness of intellectual acts.

As fatigue develops, the motives of activity are transformed. If on early stages the “business” motivation is preserved, then the motives for ending the activity or leaving it become predominant. If you continue to work in a state of fatigue, this leads to the formation of negative emotional reactions.

The described symptom complex of fatigue is represented by a variety of subjective sensations, familiar to everyone as an experience of fatigue.

When analyzing the process of labor activity, four stages of working capacity are distinguished:

1) stage of development;

2) the stage of optimal performance;

3) stage of fatigue;

4) the stage of the "final impulse".

They are followed by a mismatch of work activity. Restoring the optimal level of performance requires stopping the activity that caused fatigue for such a period of time that is necessary for both passive and active rest. In cases where the duration or usefulness of periods of rest is insufficient, there is an accumulation, or cumulation, of fatigue.

The first symptoms of chronic fatigue are a variety of subjective sensations - feelings of constant fatigue, increased fatigue, drowsiness, lethargy, etc. At the initial stages of its development, objective signs are not very pronounced. But the appearance of chronic fatigue can be judged by the change in the ratio of periods of working capacity, first of all, the stages of working out and optimal working capacity.

The term "tension" is also used to study a wide range of states of a working person. The degree of intensity of activity is determined by the structure of the labor process, in particular the content of the workload, its intensity, saturation of activity, etc. In this sense, tension is interpreted from the point of view of the requirements imposed by a particular type of labor on a person. On the other hand, the intensity of activity can be characterized by psychophysiological costs (price of activity) necessary to achieve the labor goal. In this case, tension is understood as the amount of effort applied by a person to solve the problem.

There are two main classes of states of tension: specific, which determines the dynamics and intensity of psychophysiological processes that underlie the performance of specific labor skills, and nonspecific, which characterizes the general psychophysiological resources of a person and generally ensures the level of performance.

The influence of tension on vital activity was confirmed by the following experiment: they took the neuromuscular apparatus of a frog (the gastrocnemius muscle and the nerve that innervates it) and the gastrocnemius muscle without a nerve, and connected batteries from a flashlight to both preparations. After some time, the muscle that received irritation through the nerve stopped contracting, and the muscle that received irritation directly from the battery contracted for several more days. From this, psychophysiologists concluded: a muscle can work for a long time. She is practically indefatigable. The pathways - the nerves - get tired. More precisely, synapses and ganglions, articulations of nerves.

Consequently, in order to optimize the process of labor activity, there are large reserves of full-fledged regulation of states, which are largely hidden in the correct organization of the functioning of a person as a biological organism and as a person.

2. Maintenance requirements

Efficiency is the ability to work in a certain rhythm for a certain amount of time. The performance characteristics are neuropsychic stability, the pace of production activity, and human fatigue.

The working capacity limit as a variable depends on the specific conditions:

- health,

- balanced diet,

- age,

- the value of the reserve capabilities of a person (strong or weak nervous system),

– sanitary and hygienic working conditions,

– professional training and experience,

– motivation,

- direction of personality.

Among the mandatory conditions that ensure human performance and prevent overwork, an important place is occupied by the correct alternation of work and rest. In this regard, one of the tasks of the manager is to create an optimal regime of work and rest for the staff. The regime should be established taking into account the characteristics of a particular profession, the nature of the work performed, specific working conditions, individual psychological characteristics workers. First of all, the frequency, duration and content of breaks depend on it. Breaks for rest during the working day must necessarily precede the start of the expected decline in working capacity, and not be appointed later.

Psychophysiologists have established that psychological vigor begins at 6 o'clock in the morning and is maintained for 7 hours without much hesitation, but no more. Further performance requires increased willpower. The improvement of the circadian biological rhythm begins again at about 3 p.m. and continues for the next two hours. By 18 o'clock psychological vigor gradually decreases, and by 19 o'clock there are specific changes in behavior: a decrease in mental stability gives rise to a predisposition to nervousness, increases the tendency to conflict over an insignificant issue. Some people get headaches, psychologists call this time a critical point. By 20 o'clock the psyche is activated again, the reaction time is reduced, the person reacts faster to signals. This state continues further: by 21 o'clock the memory is especially sharpened, it becomes capable of capturing much that was not possible during the day. Then there is a drop in working capacity, by 23 o'clock the body is preparing for rest, at 24 o'clock the one who went to bed at 22 o'clock is already dreaming.

In the afternoon there are 2 most critical periods: 1 - around 19 hours, 2 - around 22 hours. For employees working at this time, special volitional tension and increased attention are required. The most dangerous period is 4 o'clock in the morning, when all the physical and mental capabilities of the body are close to zero.

Performance fluctuates throughout the week. The costs of labor productivity on the first and sometimes on the second day of the working week are well known. Efficiency also undergoes seasonal changes associated with the seasons (in the spring it worsens).

In order to avoid harmful overwork, to restore strength, as well as to form what can be called readiness for work, rest is necessary. To prevent overwork of employees, the so-called "micropauses" are expedient, i.e. short-term, lasting 5-10 minutes, breaks during work. In the subsequent time, the restoration of functions slows down and is less effective: the more monotonous, monotonous the work, the more often there should be breaks. In developing work and rest schedules, the manager should strive to replace a small number of long breaks with shorter but more frequent ones. In the service sector, where a lot of nervous tension is required, short but frequent 5-minute breaks are desirable, and in the second half of the working day, due to more pronounced fatigue, the rest time should be longer than in the pre-lunch period. As a rule, such "respite" in modern organizations is not welcome. Paradoxically, but true: in a more favorable position are smokers who interrupt at least every hour. focusing on a cigarette. Apparently, this is why it is so difficult to get rid of smoking in institutions, because there is no alternative for him yet to recuperate during a short rest, which no one organizes.

In the middle of the working day, no later than 4 hours after the start of work, a lunch break (40-60 minutes) is introduced.

There are three types of long rest to recuperate after work:

1. Rest after a working day. First of all - a fairly long and sound sleep (7-8 hours). Lack of sleep cannot be compensated for by any other type of recreation. In addition to sleep, it is recommended leisure, for example, playing sports after hours, which greatly contributes to the body's resistance to fatigue at work.

2. Day off. On this day, it is important to plan such activities in order to enjoy. It is the reception of pleasure that best restores the body from physical and mental overload. If such events are not planned, then the ways of getting pleasure may be inadequate: alcohol, overeating, quarrels with neighbors, etc. But the role of the leader here is reduced only to unobtrusive advice, since the employees plan this time on their own.

3. The longest vacation is vacation. Its timing is set by management, but planning also remains with the employees. The head (trade union committee) can only give advice on organizing recreation and help with the purchase of vouchers for spa treatment.

To restore working capacity, additional methods such as relaxation (relaxation), autogenic training, meditation, and psychological training are also used.

Relaxation

Not all problems associated with fatigue can be solved by rest in its various forms. Of great importance is the organization of labor itself and the organization of the workplace of personnel.

V.P. Zinchenko and V.M. Munipov indicate that the following conditions must be met when organizing a workplace:

- sufficient working space for the worker, allowing to carry out all the necessary movements and movements during the operation and maintenance of the equipment;

- natural and artificial lighting is needed to perform operational tasks;

- the permissible level of acoustic noise, vibrations and other factors of the production environment created by the workplace equipment or other sources;

– the presence of the necessary instructions and warning signs that warn of the dangers that may arise during work and indicate the necessary precautions;

- the design of the workplace should ensure speed, reliability and economy Maintenance and repairs under normal and emergency conditions.

B.F. Lomov singled out the following signs of optimal conditions for the course of labor activity:

1. The highest manifestation of the functions of a working system (motor, sensory, etc.), for example, the highest accuracy of discrimination, the highest reaction rate, etc.

2. Long-term preservation of system performance, i.e. endurance. This refers to the functioning at the highest level. Thus, if one determines, for example, the rate at which information is presented to the operator, then it can be found that at a very low or too high rate, the duration of a person's ability to work is relatively short. But you can also find such a rate of information transfer at which a person will work productively for a long time.

3. Optimal working conditions are characterized by the shortest (compared with others) period of workability, i.e., the period of transition of a human system included in the work from a state of rest to a state of high working capacity.

4. The greatest stability of the manifestation of the function, i.e., the least variability of the results of the system. So, a person can reproduce this or that movement most accurately in amplitude or time when working at an optimal pace. With a retreat from this pace, the variability of movements increases.

5. Correspondence of reactions of a working human system to external influences. If the conditions in which the system is located are not optimal, then its reactions may not correspond to the influences (for example, a strong signal causes a weak, i.e. paradoxical reaction, and vice versa). Under optimal conditions, the system exhibits high adaptability and at the same time stability, due to which its reactions at any given moment turn out to be appropriate for the conditions.

6. Under optimal conditions, there is the greatest consistency (for example, synchronism) in the operation of the system components.

The extreme conditions of activity include: monotony, mismatch between the rhythm of sleep and wakefulness, a change in the perception of spatial structure, limited information, loneliness, group isolation, and a threat to life. IN AND. Lebedev gave detailed description human activity in extreme situations.

Monotone.

Developing the ideas of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov noted that for the active state of the higher department hemispheres a certain minimum sum of stimuli is needed, going to the brain through the usual perceiving surfaces of the animal's body.

The influence of altered afferentation, i.e., the flow of external stimuli, on the mental state of people began to be especially clearly revealed with an increase in the range and altitude of flights, as well as with the introduction of automation into aircraft navigation. In flights on bombers, crew members began to complain of general lethargy, weakening of attention, indifference, irritability and drowsiness. Unusual mental states that arose when flying aircraft with the help of autopilots - a feeling of loss of connection with reality and a violation of the perception of space - created the prerequisites for flight accidents and disasters. The appearance of such states in pilots is directly related to monotony.

Studies have shown that every third inhabitant of the city of Norilsk during the examination noted irritability, irascibility, decreased mood, tension and anxiety. In the Far North, neuropsychiatric morbidity is much higher than in the temperate and southern regions of the world. Many doctors at arctic and continental antarctic stations point out that with an increase in the length of stay in expeditionary conditions, general weakness increases in polar explorers, sleep is disturbed, irritability, isolation, depression, and anxiety appear. Some develop neuroses and psychoses. Researchers consider altered afferentation to be one of the main reasons for the development of exhaustion of the nervous system and mental illness, especially during the polar night.

Under the conditions of a submarine, a person's motor activity is limited by a relatively small volume of compartments. During the voyage, divers walk 400 m per day, and sometimes even less. Under normal conditions, people walk an average of 8-10 km. Pilots during the flight are in a forced position associated with the need to control the aircraft. But if pilots and submariners during hypokinesia, i.e., when motor activity is limited, constantly work the muscles that ensure the maintenance of a posture in gravitational conditions, then during space flights a person is faced with a fundamentally new type of hypokinesia, due not only to limitation closed space ship, but also weightlessness. In a state of weightlessness, there is no load on the musculoskeletal system, which ensures the maintenance of a person's posture in gravitational conditions. This leads to a sharp decrease, and sometimes even a cessation of afferentation from the muscular system to the structures of the brain, as evidenced by the bioelectric "silence" of the muscles under weightless conditions.

Discordance between the rhythm of sleep and wakefulness. In the process of development, a person, as it were, “fitted” into the temporal structure determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the sun. Numerous biological experiments have shown that in all living organisms (from unicellular animals and plants to humans inclusive) the daily rhythms of cell division, activity and rest, metabolic processes, performance, etc. under constant conditions (with constant light or in the dark) are very stable, approaching a 24-hour periodicity. Currently, about 300 processes are known in the human body that are subject to daily periodicity.

Under normal conditions, "circadian" (circadian) rhythms are synchronized with geographical and social (working hours of enterprises, cultural and public institutions, etc.) "time sensors", i.e., exogenous (external) rhythms.

Studies have shown that with shifts from 3 to 12 hours, the timing of the restructuring of various functions in accordance with the impact of the changed "time sensors" ranges from 4 to 15 or more days. With frequent transmeridian flights, desynchronization in 75% of aircraft crew members causes neurotic states and the development of neuroses. Most of the electroencephalograms of spacecraft crew members who had shifts in sleep and wakefulness during flights indicated a decrease in the processes of excitation and inhibition.

What is the mechanism of a person's biorhythm - his "biological clock"? How do they work in the body?

The circadian rhythm is the most important for a person. Clocks are wound by regular changes of light and darkness. Light, falling on the retina through the optic nerves, enters the part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the highest autonomic center that performs complex integration and adaptation of functions internal organs and systems into the integral activity of the organism. It is associated with one of the most important endocrine glands - the pituitary gland, which regulates the activity of other endocrine glands that produce hormones. So, as a result of this chain, the amount of hormones in the blood fluctuates in the rhythm of "light - dark". These fluctuations determine high level body functions during the day and low - at night.

At night, the lowest body temperature. By morning, it rises and reaches a maximum by 18 hours. This rhythm is an echo of the distant past, when sharp fluctuations in the ambient temperature were assimilated by all living organisms. According to the English neurophysiologist Walter, the appearance of this rhythm, which makes it possible to alternate the stage of activity depending on the temperature fluctuations of the environment, was one of the most important stages in the evolution of the living world.

A person has not experienced these fluctuations for a long time, he created an artificial temperature environment for himself (clothing, housing), but the temperature of his body fluctuates, like a million years ago. And these fluctuations are today no less important for the body. The fact is that temperature determines the rate of biochemical reactions. During the day, the metabolism is most intensive, and this determines the greater activity of a person. The rhythm of body temperature is repeated by indicators of many body systems: this is, first of all, the pulse, blood pressure, respiration.

In synchronization of rhythms, nature has reached amazing perfection: thus, by the time a person wakes up, as if anticipating the body’s need increasing every minute, adrenaline accumulates in the blood, a substance that speeds up the pulse, increases blood pressure, that is, activates the body. By this time, a number of other biologically active substances appear in the blood. Their rising level facilitates awakening and alerts the waking apparatus.

Most people during the day have two peaks of increased efficiency, the so-called double-humped curve. The first rise is observed from 9 to 12-13 hours, the second - between 16 and 18 hours. During the period of maximum activity, the sharpness of our senses also increases: in the morning a person hears better and distinguishes colors better. Proceeding from this, the most difficult and responsible work should be timed to coincide with periods of a natural rise in working capacity, leaving for breaks a time of relatively low working capacity.

Well, what if a person has to work at night? At night, our performance is much lower than during the day, since the functional level of the body is significantly reduced. A particularly unfavorable period is the period from 1 to 3 o'clock in the morning. That is why at this time the number of accidents, industrial injuries and errors increases sharply, fatigue is most pronounced.

British researchers have found that nurses who have been working night shifts for decades continue to have a nighttime decline in physiological function, despite being actively awake at this time. This is due to the stability of the rhythm of physiological functions, as well as the inferiority of daytime sleep.

Daytime sleep differs from nighttime sleep in the ratio of sleep phases and the rhythm of their alternation. However, if a person sleeps during the day in conditions that mimic the night, his body is able to develop a new rhythm of physiological functions that are reverse to the previous one. In this case, a person adapts more easily to night work. Weekly night shift work is less harmful than periodic work, when the body does not have time to adapt to the changing sleep and rest regimen.

Not all people adapt to shift work in the same way - one works better in the morning, others in the evening. People called "larks" wake up early, feel alert and efficient in the morning. In the evening they experience drowsiness and go to bed early. Others - "owls" - fall asleep long after midnight, wake up late and get up with difficulty, since they have the deepest period of sleep in the morning.

The German physiologist Hampp, when examining a large number of people, found that 1/6 of the people belong to the morning type, 1/3 to the evening type, and almost half of the people easily adapt to any mode of work - these are the so-called "arrhythmics". Among mental workers, evening-type persons predominate, while almost half of the persons engaged in physical labor are arrhythmics.

Scientists suggest that when distributing people over work shifts, take into account the individual characteristics of the rhythm of working capacity. The importance of this individual approach to a person is confirmed, for example, by studies conducted at 31 industrial enterprises in West Berlin, which showed that only 19% of 103,435 workers meet the requirements for night shift workers. The suggestion of American researchers to train students at different hours of the day, taking into account the individual characteristics of their biological rhythms, is curious.

In diseases, both physical and mental, biological rhythms can change (for example, some psychotics can sleep for 48 hours).

There is a hypothesis of three biorhythms: the frequency of physical activity (23), emotional (28) and intellectual (33 days). However, this hypothesis did not withstand substantial testing.

Change in perception of spatial structure

Spatial orientation in conditions of being on the surface of the Earth is understood as the ability of a person to assess his position relative to the direction of gravity, as well as relative to various surrounding objects. Both components of this orientation are functionally closely related, although their relationship is ambiguous.

In space flight, one of the essential spatial coordinates ("up - down") disappears, through the prism of which the surrounding space is perceived under terrestrial conditions. In orbital flight, as in airplane flights, the cosmonaut lays out the path of the orbit, linking it to specific areas of the earth's surface. Unlike an orbital flight, the route of an interplanetary ship will pass between two celestial bodies moving in outer space. In interplanetary flight, as in flights to the Moon, astronauts will determine their position using instruments in a completely different coordinate system. With the help of instruments, aircraft and submarines are also controlled. In other words, the perception of space is mediated in these cases by instrumental information, which allows us to speak of a spatial field that has changed for a person.

The main difficulty in the indirect, through instruments, control of the machine is that a person must not only quickly “read” their readings, but also just as quickly, sometimes almost instantly, generalize the data received, mentally represent the relationship between the readings of the instruments and reality. In other words, based on the readings of the instruments, he must create in his mind a subjective, conceptual model of the trajectory of the aircraft in space.

One of the specific features of the activity of pilots and cosmonauts is that each of its subsequent moments is strictly determined by constantly incoming information about the state of the controlled object and the external ("disturbing") environment. Indicative in this regard is the descent of astronauts to the lunar surface. The descent vehicle has no wings and no main rotor. In fact, it is a jet engine and cabin. After separating from the main block of the spacecraft and starting the descent, the astronaut no longer has the opportunity, as a pilot, to go to the second circle in case of an unsuccessful landing approach. Here are some extracts from the report of the American astronaut N. Armstrong, who first carried out this maneuver: “... at a height of a thousand feet, it became clear to us that the Eagle (descent vehicle) wanted to land on the most inappropriate site. From the left porthole, I could clearly see both the crater itself and the platform strewn with boulders ... It seemed to us that the stones were rushing at us at a terrifying speed ... The platform on which our choice fell was the size of a large garden plot... In the last seconds of the descent, our engine raised a significant amount of lunar dust, which, with a very high speed scattered radially, almost parallel to the surface of the moon ... The impression was as if you were landing on the moon through a rapidly rushing fog.

Continuous operator activity under the time limit causes emotional tension along with significant vegetative shifts. So, in a normal level flight on a modern fighter aircraft, for many pilots, the heart rate rises to 120 or more beats per minute, and when switching to supersonic speed and breaking through clouds, it reaches 160 beats with a sharp increase in breathing and an increase in blood pressure up to 160 mmHg. The pulse of astronaut N. Armstrong during the lunar maneuver averaged 156 beats per minute, exceeding the initial value by almost 3 times.

Pilots and cosmonauts, when performing a number of maneuvers, have to work in two control loops. An example is the situation of rendezvous and docking of one ship with another or with an orbital station. Cosmonaut G.T. Beregovoy writes that when performing this maneuver, “you need to look, as they say, both ways. And not figuratively, but in the most literal sense of the word. And behind the instruments on the remote control, and through the windows. He notes that he experienced "great internal stress" at the same time. A similar emotional stress arises in pilots during the maneuver of refueling the aircraft with fuel in the air. They say that the vast expanse of the air ocean, due to the proximity of the tanker aircraft (tanker), suddenly becomes surprisingly cramped.

Working in two control loops, a person, as it were, splits into two. From a physiological point of view, this means that the operator needs to maintain the concentration of the excitatory process in two different functional systems ah of the brain, reflecting the dynamics of the movement of the observed object (tanker aircraft) and the controlled aircraft, as well as extrapolating (foreseeing) possible events. In itself, this dual operator activity, even with sufficiently developed skills, requires a lot of effort. The dominant foci of irritation located in close proximity create a difficult neuropsychic state, accompanied by significant deviations in various body systems.

As studies have shown, at the time of refueling an aircraft in the air, the heart rate of pilots increases to 160–186 beats, and the number of respiratory movements reaches 35–50 per minute, which is 2–3 times higher than usual. Body temperature rises by 0.7–1.2 degrees. Exceptionally high numbers of ascorbic acid emissions are noted (20 and even 30 times higher than the norm). Similar shifts in vegetative reactions are also observed in cosmonauts during docking operations.

When working under conditions of time limit and shortage, a person’s internal reserves are mobilized, a number of mechanisms are activated to ensure that difficulties arise, and the way of activity is restructured. Due to this, the efficiency of the “man-machine” system can remain at the same level for some time. However, if the flow of information becomes too large and continues for a long time, a "breakdown" is possible. Neurotic "breakdowns" that occur in conditions of continuous activity limited in time, as well as in the case of bifurcation of activity, as shown in his study by the famous Soviet psychoneurologist F.D. Gorbov, are manifested in paroxysms of consciousness and working memory. In some cases, these violations lead to flight accidents and crashes. The founder of cybernetics N. Wiener wrote: "One of the great problems that we will inevitably face in the future is the problem of the relationship between man and machine, the problem of the correct distribution of functions between them." The problem of rational "symbiosis" of man and machine is solved in line with engineering psychology.

According to A.I. Kikolov, for railway and civil aviation dispatchers, who also perceive vehicles moving in space only with the help of devices, during work, the pulse rate increases by an average of 13 beats, the maximum blood pressure increases by 26 mm Hg, the content of blood sugar. Moreover, even the next day after work, the parameters of physiological functions do not return to their original values. During many years of work, these specialists develop a state of emotional imbalance (nervousness increases), sleep is disturbed, pains appear in the region of the heart. Such symptoms in some cases develop into a pronounced neurosis. G. Selye notes that 35% of air traffic controllers suffer from peptic ulcer caused by nervous strain while working with information models.

Information restriction

Under normal conditions, a person constantly produces, transmits and consumes a large amount of information, which he divides into three types: personal, having value for a narrow circle of people, usually related by family or friendship; special, having value within formal social groups; mass, transmitted by the media.

In extreme conditions, the only source of information about loved ones, about events in the world and about the homeland, about achievements in science, etc. is radio. The range of transmissions of information to the "board" ranges from periodic radio communications during flights on airplanes and spaceships to extremely rare, laconic business telegrams for submarine officers. The passage of radiograms to Antarctic stations for a long time can be hampered by electromagnetic storms.

As the time of the submarine's voyage increases, the need for information about events at home and in the world, about relatives, etc. increases among sailors. When the opportunity arises to listen to radio broadcasts, sailors always show a lively interest in them. During long trips, neurotic states were observed among submariners, clearly due to the lack of information about sick relatives, pregnant wives, about enrollment in educational institution etc. At the same time, a state of anxiety, depression developed, and sleep was disturbed. In some cases, medical treatment had to be resorted to.

When people received information of interest to them, even negative (refusal to be admitted to an educational institution, to provide an apartment, etc.), all neurotic phenomena completely disappeared.

The French speleologist M. Sifr talks about satisfying his hunger for information when he found two scraps of old newspapers: “God, how interesting it is to read Incidents! I have never read this section before, but now, like a drowning man, I cling to the most insignificant events. Everyday life on a surface".

The doctor-subject, who participated in a long-term experiment in the isolation chamber, had a daughter who became seriously ill. The lack of information about the state of her health caused him emotional tension, anxiety, he could hardly distract himself from thoughts about his daughter while carrying out “flight” shifts and conducting various experiments.

Complete information isolation, which did not allow any communication with the outside world, fellow prisoners, and even with jailers, was part of the system of keeping political prisoners in tsarist Russia. Solitary confinement, combined with the deprivation of personally significant information, was aimed at breaking the will of political prisoners, destroying their psyche and thereby making them unfit for further revolutionary struggle. Dzerzhinsky, being a prisoner of the Warsaw Citadel, wrote in his diary: “What is most oppressive, what the prisoners are not able to come to terms with, is the mystery of this building, the mystery of life in it, this is a regime aimed at ensuring that each of the prisoners knows only about himself, and then not all, but as little as possible.

Loneliness

Prolonged loneliness inevitably causes changes in mental activity. R. Baird, after three months of loneliness on the Ross Glacier (Antarctica), assessed his condition as depressive. Vivid images of family members and friends were born in his imagination. At the same time, the feeling of loneliness disappeared. There was a desire for reasoning of a philosophical nature. Often there was a feeling of universal harmony, a special meaning of the surrounding world.

Christina Ritter, who spent 60 days alone in the conditions of the polar night on Svalbard, says that her experiences were similar to those described by Baird. She had images from her past life, In her dreams she viewed her past life as in bright sunlight. She felt as if she had become one with the universe. She developed a state of love for the situation, accompanied by fascination and hallucinations. She compared this "love" with the state that people experience when taking drugs or being in religious ecstasy.

The well-known Russian psychiatrist Gannushkin noted back in 1904 that reactive mental states can develop in people who, for one reason or another, found themselves in conditions of social isolation. A number of psychiatrists describe in their works cases of the development of reactive psychoses in people who have fallen into social isolation due to ignorance of the language. Speaking about the so-called "psychoses of old maids", the German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer clearly singles out relative isolation as one of the reasons. For the same reason, reactive states and hallucinosis can develop in lonely pensioners, widowers, and others. The pathogenic effect of this factor on the mental state is especially pronounced in conditions of solitary confinement. The German psychiatrist E. Kraepelin in his classification of mental illness identified a group of "prison psychoses", to which he refers hallucinatory-paranoid psychoses that occur with clear consciousness and usually occur during prolonged solitary confinement.

group isolation

Members of Arctic and Antarctic expeditions for up to a year or more are forced to stay in small isolated groups. A certain autonomy of the submarine compartment leads to the fact that the relatively small crew of the ship is divided into separate small groups of sailors. Currently, two to six people can work at orbital stations at the same time. It is assumed that the crew of the interplanetary spacecraft will consist of six to ten people. When flying to Mars, crew members will be in forced group isolation for about three years.

From the history of scientific expeditions, wintering in the Arctic and Antarctic, long voyages on ships and rafts, a large number of examples can be cited, showing that small groups unite even more strongly in the face of difficulties and dangers. At the same time, people retain in their relationships a sense of cordial concern for each other, often sacrificing themselves in the name of saving their comrades. However, the history of scientific expeditions and voyages also knows many sad cases of disunity of people who find themselves in conditions of long-term group isolation. Thus, in the first international polar year (1882–1883), an American expedition landed on "Ellesmere Land" (Far North). In conditions of group isolation, conflicts began to arise between members of the expedition. To restore order, the head of the expedition, Grilli, used a system of severe punishments. Even resorting to the execution of his subordinates, he failed to cope with the task entrusted to him.

In 1898, the small ship "Belgica" remained for the winter off the coast of Antarctica. During the winter, the crew members became irritable, dissatisfied, distrustful of each other, conflicts began to arise. Two people went crazy.

Polar explorer E.K. Fedorov writes that “in small groups, peculiar relationships develop ... A trifling reason - perhaps the way one speaks or laughs - can sometimes cause growing irritation of another and lead to discord and quarrel."

R. Amundsen called conflict, aggressiveness, which seems to arise for no apparent reason, “expeditionary rage”, and T. Heyerdahl called it “acute expeditionary”. "This psychological condition when the most accommodating person grumbles, gets angry, gets angry, finally becomes furious, because his field of vision gradually narrows so much that he sees only the shortcomings of his comrades, and their virtues are no longer perceived. It is characteristic that it was the fear of "expeditionary rabies" that prompted R. Baird to include 12 straitjackets in the list of things for his first expedition to Antarctica.

Social and psychological studies convincingly show that with an increase in the time spent by polar explorers at Antarctic stations, tension first appears in relationships, and then conflicts, which develop into open hostility between individual members of the expedition over the course of six to seven months of wintering. By the end of wintering, the number of isolated and rejected members of the group increases significantly.

Threat to life

The definition of the degree of risk is based on the assumption that each type of human activity entails some probability of accidents and catastrophes. For example, for a fighter pilot, the risk of death in peacetime is 50 times higher than for civil aviation pilots, for whom it is equal to three to four deaths per 1,000 pilots. Especially high is the risk of dying as a result of a catastrophe for pilots testing new types of aircraft. The most dangerous are the professions of submariners, polar explorers, astronauts.

A threat to life in a certain way affects the mental state of people. The overwhelming majority of pilot-cosmonauts, submariners, and polar explorers in conditions of serious risk experience sthenic emotions, show courage and heroism. However, mental tension arises due to uncertainty about the reliability of security.

In a number of cases, a threat to life causes the development of neuroses in pilots, which manifest themselves in an anxious state. M. Fryukholm showed that gloomy forebodings and anxiety are subjective aspects of the state that occurs in pilots in response to the danger of flight. In his opinion, such an adequate reaction to danger as alarm is necessary for the prevention of a catastrophe, since it encourages the pilot to be careful in flight. But this same anxiety can grow into a real problem of fear of flying, which manifests itself either explicitly or through references to malaise. Some pilots develop neurotic diseases, which are the reason for their expulsion from aviation.

M. Collins, a member of the first expedition to the Moon, said: “There, in outer space, you constantly catch yourself thinking, which cannot but depress ... The path to the Moon was a fragile chain of complex manipulations. Huge, sometimes inhuman loads fell on each participant in the flight - nervous, physical, moral. The cosmos does not forgive even the slightest mistakes... And you are risking the main thing - your life and the lives of your comrades... This is too much tension, from which you will not get away even ten years later.

This is how the fate of the "greatest three" - Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin and Michael Collins - turned out. Armstrong retired to a villa in Ohio and is trying his best to maintain the position of "voluntary exile." Aldrin, two years after the flight, felt he needed psychiatric help. It is hard to believe that at the age of 46 he has turned into a constantly shaking person, immersed in a deep depression. He claims to have become so shortly after his "walk" on the moon. Collins, who had been on duty in lunar orbit for several days and was waiting for the return of his comrades there, is in charge of National Museum aeronautics and astronautics, opened in 1976. And one more curious detail: after the flight, its participants never met. And among Russian cosmonauts, some do not even want to go through post-flight rehabilitation together, they ask to be taken to different sanatoriums.

Thus, in extreme conditions, the following main psychogenic factors affect a person: monotony (altered afferentation), desynchronosis, altered spatial structure, organic information, loneliness, group isolation and a threat to life. These factors act, as a rule, not in isolation, but in combination, however, in order to reveal the mechanisms of mental disorders, it is necessary to identify the specific features of the impact of each of them.

Mental adaptation to extreme situations

It is possible to adapt to extreme situations to some extent. There are several types of adaptation: stable adaptation, re-adaptation, maladjustment, readaptation.

Sustainable mental adaptation

These are those regulatory reactions, mental activity, system of relations, etc., which arose in the process of ontogeny in specific ecological and social conditions and whose functioning within the boundaries of the optimum does not require significant neuropsychic stress.

P.S. Grave and M.R. Shneidman write that a person is in an adapted state when “his internal information stock corresponds to the information content of the situation, that is, when the system operates in conditions where the situation does not go beyond the individual information range.” However, the adapted state is difficult to define, because the line separating adapted (normal) mental activity from pathological activity does not look like a thin line, but rather represents a wide range of functional fluctuations and individual differences.

One of the signs of adaptation is that the regulatory processes that ensure the balance of the organism as a whole in the external environment proceed smoothly, smoothly, economically, i.e., in the “optimum” zone. Adapted regulation is determined by the long-term adaptation of a person to environmental conditions, by the fact that in the process of life experience he has developed a set of algorithms for responding to regular and probabilistic, but relatively often repeated influences (“for all occasions”). In other words, adapted behavior does not require from a person a pronounced tension of regulatory mechanisms to maintain, within certain limits, both vital body constants and mental processes that provide an adequate reflection of reality.

With the inability of a person to re-adaptation, neuropsychiatric disorders often occur. More N.I. Pirogov noted that for some recruits from Russian villages who ended up on a long service in Austria-Hungary, nostalgia led to death without visible somatic signs of illness.

Mental maladaptation

A mental crisis in ordinary life can be caused by a break in the usual system of relationships, the loss of significant values, the inability to achieve goals, the loss of a loved one, etc. All this is accompanied by negative emotional experiences, an inability to realistically assess the situation and find a rational way out of it. A person begins to feel that he is in a dead end from which there is no way out.

Mental disadaptation in extreme conditions is manifested in disturbances in the perception of space and time, in the appearance of unusual mental states and is accompanied by pronounced vegetative reactions.

Some unusual mental states that occur during a period of crisis (disadaptation) in extreme conditions are similar to those during age-related crises, when young people adapt to military service, and when they change sex.

In the process of growing deep internal conflict or conflict with others, when all previous relationships to the world and to oneself are broken and rebuilt, when psychological reorientation is carried out, new value systems are established and the criteria for judgments change, when gender identity decays and another is born, a person dreams, false judgments, overvalued ideas, anxiety, fear, emotional lability, instability and other unusual states often appear.

Psychic adaptation

In "Confession" L.N. Tolstoy clearly and convincingly showed how, when overcoming a crisis, a person overestimates spiritual values, rethinks the meaning of life, outlines a new path and sees his place in it in a new way. Reading the "Confession", we seem to be present at the rebirth of the personality, which is carried out in the process of self-creation with mental anguish and doubts. This process is expressed in everyday language as "experience", when this word means the transfer of some painful event, overcoming a difficult feeling or condition.

Millions of people in the process of inner work overcome painful life events and situations and restore their lost peace of mind. In other words, they adapt. However, not everyone succeeds. In some cases, a mental crisis can lead to tragic consequences - suicide attempts and suicide.

Often people who are unable to get out of a severe mental crisis on their own, or people who have attempted suicide, are sent to crisis hospitals of the Social and Psychological Assistance Service. It's about mental healthy people. Psychotherapists and psychologists with the help of special means (rational group psychotherapy, role-playing games, etc.) help patients in crisis hospitals in re-adaptation, which they themselves evaluate as a "personality rebirth".

Mental readaptation

The newly formed dynamic systems that regulate human relations, his motor activity, etc., as the time spent in unusual conditions of existence increases, turn into persistent stereotypical systems. The former adaptation mechanisms that have arisen under normal conditions of life are forgotten and lost. When a person returns from unusual to ordinary conditions of life, the dynamic stereotypes that have developed in extreme conditions are destroyed, it becomes necessary to restore the old stereotypes, that is, to readapt.

Research by I.A. Zhiltsova showed that the process of readaptation of sailors to normal coastal conditions goes through phases of stress, recovery and addiction. According to her, the full restoration of the psychological compatibility of husband and wife is completed by 25–35 days of joint rest; complete adaptation to coastal conditions - by 55-65 days.

It has been established that the longer the period of life and work at hydrometeorological stations, the more difficult it is for people to readapt to normal conditions. A number of people who have worked in expeditionary conditions in the Far North for 10–15 years and then moved to permanent residence in big cities return to hydrometeorological stations, unable to readapt under normal living conditions. Emigrants who have lived in a foreign land for a long time face similar difficulties when returning to their homeland.

Thus, mental readaptation, as well as readaptation, is accompanied by crisis phenomena.

Stages of adaptation

Regardless of the specific forms of unusual conditions of existence, mental re-adaptation in extreme conditions, maladjustment in them and readaptation to ordinary living conditions are subject to the alternation of the following stages:

1) preparatory,

2) starting mental stress,

3) acute mental reactions of entry,

4) re-adaptation,

5) final mental stress,

6) acute mental exit reactions,

7) readaptation.

The stage of re-adaptation under certain circumstances can be replaced by a stage of deep mental changes. Between these two stages there is an intermediate stage - the stage of unstable mental activity.

4. Age-related changes in performance

Staff with extensive experience practical work and knowledge, unfortunately, tends to age. At the same time, leaders are not getting younger either. New employees come, who also have the burden of past years behind them. How to organize the work of aging workers so that their activities are as efficient as possible?

First of all, you should know that biological and calendar aging differ. Biological aging has a decisive influence on human performance. Throughout life, the human body is exposed to influences that cause corresponding changes in biological structures and functions. The time of occurrence of structural and functional changes characteristic of individual age groups is individual, therefore, with increasing age, there may be large differences between biological and calendar aging.

Medicine has proven that the rational labor activity of an elderly person allows him to maintain his ability to work longer, delay biological aging, increases the sense of joy of work, and therefore increases the usefulness of this person for the organization. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the specific physiological and psychological requirements for the work of older people, and not begin to actively influence the process of biological aging only when a person stops working due to reaching retirement age. It is believed that the problem of aging is a problem of an individual, not an organization. This is not entirely true. The experience of Japanese managers shows that caring for aging employees turns into millions in profits for enterprises.

To implement an individual approach to the employee, it is important for each manager to know certain relationships, namely: the relationship between the professional working capacity of aging people, their experiences and behavior, as well as the physical ability to withstand the load associated with a particular activity.

With biological aging, there is a decrease in the functional usefulness of organs and thus a weakening of the ability to restore strength by the next working day. In this regard, the head must follow some rules in organizing the work of older people:

1. Avoid sudden high loads of the elderly. Rush, excessive responsibility, tension as a result of a rigid work rhythm, lack of relaxation contribute to the occurrence of heart disease. Do not entrust elderly workers with too hard physical and monotonous work.

2. Carry out regular preventive medical examinations. This will make it possible to prevent the occurrence of work-related occupational diseases.

3. When transferring an employee to another place due to a decrease in labor productivity, attach particular importance to ensuring that older employees do not feel disadvantaged due to rash measures or explanations of the manager.

4. Use older people mainly in those workplaces where a calm and even pace of work is possible, where everyone can distribute the work process himself, where excessively large static and dynamic loads are not required, where good conditions work in accordance with occupational health standards, where a quick response is not required. When deciding on shift work for older people, it is essential to take into account the overall health status. Particular attention should be paid to labor protection, taking into account, when distributing new tasks, that an elderly person is no longer so mobile and, having no long experience in this enterprise or workplace, is more exposed to danger than his younger colleague in the same situation.

5. It should be taken into account that during the period of aging, although there is a weakening of the functional ability of the organs, the effective working capacity does not decrease. Some functional insufficiency is compensated by life and professional experience, conscientiousness and rational working methods. An assessment of one's own importance becomes important. Satisfaction with one's job, the degree of professional excellence achieved, and active participation in social work reinforce the feeling of one's usefulness. The speed of performing labor operations decreases more intensively than accuracy, therefore, for the elderly, the most acceptable work is the one that requires priority! experience and established thinking skills.

6. Take into account the progressive deterioration in the ability of the elderly to perceive and remember. This should be taken into account when changing working conditions and the need to acquire new skills, for example, to maintain new modern installations.

7. Keep in mind that after the age of 60, it is difficult to adapt to new working conditions and to a new team, so the transition to another job can lead to great complications. If this cannot be avoided, then when assigning a new job, it is imperative to take into account the experience and certain skills of an older employee. Work that requires considerable mobility and increased tension of several senses (for example, in the management and control of automatic production processes) is not recommended. Perception, and, consequently, reactions also change qualitatively and quantitatively. Employees should be prepared in a timely manner for changes in production, and especially the elderly; require those responsible for advanced training to take a special approach to older employees. It is necessary to strive to ensure that their professional skills and abilities do not remain at the same level. Such a danger is possible mainly where workers are engaged in solving practical problems and they have little time and energy left for further professional development or there is no incentive for this. It is important for a manager to know that a person’s ability to work remains the longer, the higher his qualification and the more attention he pays to improving it.

In order to interest an elderly employee in a new job, it is necessary to establish a connection between the new and old work, relying on the views, comparisons and rich experience from the industrial and social and political life of older people and making it clear to the elderly employee that the manager highly appreciates his sense of duty and professional qualities. This will boost his confidence.

With the weakening of physical and mental capabilities in the elderly, a tendency to isolation and isolation may appear. The leader must take action against such isolation. It should be emphasized that the rich life and work experience of an elderly employee has a positive impact on young people.

8. How should a leader treat the emerging weaknesses of older people? Changes due to age should not be overemphasized. This is a natural process. However, it should be borne in mind that the phenomena of age-related depression are possible, which can also be expressed in a rapid change in mood. It is necessary to support an elderly person, to praise him more often.

9. You should carefully monitor the socio-psychological climate in the team where employees of different ages work. It is necessary to recognize both those and others for the accomplishment of the task assigned to them, so that no age group feels disadvantaged. It is important to celebrate in front of the team the successes of an elderly worker in work and in connection with solemn dates.

10. The replacement of older staff must be planned and prepared for in advance. Avoid tension between predecessor and successor.

11. If an employee has reached retirement age but still wants to work, then at his request it is advisable to give him the opportunity to work part-time in the enterprise, since work contributes to good health and reduces the negative effects of the aging process.

12. Help the retiring worker identify a new activity. You can recommend him to do social work or become a member of the club of production veterans, etc. It is necessary to keep in touch with pensioners (invite to cultural events, production festivals, inform about events taking place at the enterprise, deliver a large circulation, etc.).

The manager's policy towards older employees gives all staff confidence in the future. If younger and more aggressive employees seek to take a higher position in the organization, which is hindered by the presence of an older comrade, and seek to force out a competitor, then the older generation is already thinking about the prospects of their stay in this organization. And if they have a clear vision that the outlook is more favorable, they will work more fully. The level of conflict will decrease, labor productivity will increase, the socio-psychological climate in the team will improve.

Literature

2. Psychology of management. Urbanovich A.A. Mn.: Harvest, 2003 - 640 p.

3. General psychology. Maklakov A.G. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001 - 592 p.

4. General psychology. Maksimenko S.D.M.: Refl-book, 2004 - 528 p.

A large amount of empirical data on various functional states has been accumulated, and methods and criteria for their diagnosis have been developed. The states typical for professional activity are also defined: fatigue, tension, monotony and stress.

Fatigue. Objective, natural, typical for most professions processes of reducing the ability of the body of a working person to perform labor functions as the duration of work increases, it is customary to denote the term "fatigue". The characteristic of the labor activity itself and its conditions, from the point of view of its influence on the performance of the subject of labor, is denoted by the term "fatigue". A person's susceptibility to the development of fatigue phenomena, a characteristic of the individual characteristics of his performance is called fatigue. The subjective experience by the worker of the development of the state of fatigue is called “fatigue”.

The state of fatigue accompanies all types of human activity. It is a normal reaction of the body to the work load, but in acute and chronic forms it causes a violation of working capacity. Fatigue - this is a functional state that occurs as a result of intense and/or long-term workload and manifests itself in a temporary violation of a number of mental and physiological functions of the individual, as well as a decrease in the efficiency and quality of work. With prolonged exposure to excessive loads and the absence of conditions for the full recovery of functional disorders, the state of fatigue can turn into overwork.

Fatigue is a functional state of the body, manifested in a temporary decrease in performance, in non-specific changes in physiological functions, in a number of subjective sensations, united by a feeling of fatigue as a result of intensive or prolonged work. This definition reflects three mandatory signs of fatigue; firstly, a decrease in efficiency; secondly, previous long or strenuous work; thirdly, the decrease in efficiency is temporary, reversible. On the physiological side, the development of fatigue indicates a significant reduction in the internal reserves of the body and the transition to less beneficial types of work regimen: maintaining the minute volume of blood due to increased heart rate instead of increasing stroke volume; motor reactions are carried out with the involvement of a larger number of muscle groups; when the force of contraction of individual muscles is weakened, the force and speed of contractions and the stability of the vegetative function, the processes of higher nervous activity. As a result, the pace of work slows down, accuracy, rhythm, coordination, movements are violated; the physiological cost of work increases; the nature of the course of mental processes changes; sensory sensitivity decreases: absolute and differential thresholds increase; the reaction time increases, but the response speed may increase with an increase in the number of errors. Attention suffers - the volume narrows, switching and distribution are disturbed, conscious control over activity is disturbed. Difficulty extracting information from long-term memory, short-term memory suffers. The efficiency of thinking processes is deteriorating due to the predominance of stereotyped methods when new decisions are required.

Fatigue is also expressed in subjective experiences of a person. With varying degrees of awareness, a state of physiological and mental discomfort is perceived: sweating, shortness of breath, tremor, non-localized pain, impaired attention characteristics, defects in thinking and memory, disorders in the sensory sphere, weakening of the will. With strong degrees of fatigue, negatively colored emotional experiences are observed: aversion to work, irritability, hostility to the environment. Medical indicators of fatigue are injuries and work-related diseases. Economic - a decrease in the quality and quantity of labor. The state of fatigue is accompanied by a decrease in motivation to work, which is reflected in the mind in the form of a feeling of an internal obstacle and a desire to stop working, which is called fatigue.

Fatigue- a mental phenomenon, an experience caused by fatigue. A.A. Ukhtomsky wrote that fatigue is a sensitive natural warning about incipient fatigue. The latter determines a person's defensive reaction - refusal of activity, rest. This signal can be inhibited by a person's volitional effort, but this does not relieve fatigue, but only postpones it.

The main cause of fatigue is intense and prolonged workload. For mental fatigue, such a load is usually associated with intellectual activity to transform a large flow of information, work under time constraints, the complexity and responsibility of the task. The load can also be physical work to maintain a forced posture, move the controls.

Additional causes of fatigue that may hasten the development of this condition or increase the severity of its manifestations include:

Impact on the body of adverse environmental factors (noise, vibration, hypoxia);

Increased neuropsychic stress, emotional stress;

Excessive intensity of physical and mental stress before the main work (physical education and sports, homework).

The factors predisposing to the occurrence of fatigue are: violation of the rational mode of work, rest and nutrition, long breaks between work (professional maladaptation), residual functional impairment (decrease in body reserves) after illness, insufficient physical development, the presence of bad habits, insufficient level of physical fitness.

There are different concepts about the nature of fatigue phenomena.

A) theories that emphasize the role of local peripheral phenomena that develop during fatigue in the most loaded organs and systems of the subject of labor (for example, ideas about the role of lactic acid and other metabolic products in working muscles);

B) the phenomena of inhibition in the central nervous system have a leading role in fatigue (I.M. Sechenov);

C) emphasizes the importance of adaptive-trophic effects of the autonomic nervous system and humoral influences - hormones, biochemical components of tissues and fluids during fatigue (L.A. Orbeli, K.Kh. Kekcheev, etc.).

The development of fatigue is due to the influence of two groups of factors. Firstly, the development of inhibitory processes in the central nervous system, and secondly, a violation of metabolic processes and a decrease in energy resources in working organs and tissues. The theoretical substantiation of these ideas is as follows. In any activity, the main work on the processing of excitation flows related to the formation of control commands on the basis of traces of previous stimuli and signals going to the cortex during work (reverse afferentation) falls on the nerve centers. Also, from the organs and tissues in the central nervous system there are signals that reflect chemical shifts in their work. In addition, fatigue factors are changes in the internal environment of the body that occur during prolonged and intense loads, in particular shifts in the physicochemical properties of blood, accumulation of metabolic products in the blood, and a decrease in the amount of sugar - hypoglycemia. These shifts reduce the performance of the nerve centers both directly due to changes in the internal environment, to which the cortical cells are very sensitive, and indirectly, by stimulating various receptors. Depending on the specific conditions, various factors come to the fore in the development of fatigue.

The state of the nerve centers is determined during work by three main factors: the expenditure of energy resources, their restoration in the course of work, and the processes of inhibition. The increase in the process of spending resources, which occurs during the work of nerve cells, is accompanied by an intensification of the recovery process that takes place in the course of work. Studies by biochemists have shown that the process of splitting always causes an increase in the reaction that produces synthesis, therefore, in a working tissue, the recovery process is faster than in a resting one. This means that it is not correct to assume that from the very beginning of work, the functional resources of the body are steadily declining. In the initial stage of activity, incoming flows of afferent excitations tone up the cortical centers and increase their excitability. The material basis of these favorable shifts is the activation of the recovery process. This is the process of working in, thanks to which the working capacity is increased.

By type, fatigue can be physical, mental, emotional and mixed, as well as general and local, muscular, visual, auditory, intellectual (creative).

According to the forms, this condition is classified into compensated, acute, chronic fatigue and overwork. The modern classification of fatigue (Table 2) is based on three groups of indicators:

The reasons for its occurrence;

Symptoms of manifestation;

methods and duration of recovery.

Chronic

Figure 32. - Types of professional fatigue.

The norm in manifestations of fatigue is expressed in the sufficiency of a period of passive rest, sleep for a full recovery of working capacity. Normal fatigue develops gradually, the body systems have time to rebuild, there is an opportunity to compensate for suffering functions. In the event that a person performs excessively heavy, backbreaking work, acute fatigue develops, while rapidly increasing functional disorders in the activity of the central nervous system are typical.

Table 2. Classification of fatigue.

Indicators	Fatigue	Overwork
compensated	acute	chronic
Causes of occurrence (workload)	Short-term, moderate intensity	Short-term, intensive	Multiple (long-term), intensive	Repeated, prolonged, excessive intensity
Signs: 1) professional (efficiency and quality of work)	No violations	No significant violations	Material violations	Significant violations, errors, failures
2) functional subjective	Feeling tired at the end of work	Feeling tired after exercise	Constant fatigue, general weakness, sleep disturbances, decreased interest in work	Constant fatigue, apathy, weakness, sleep disturbances, insomnia, loss of interest in work, decreased alertness
functional objective	Minor autonomic reactions	Violations of the functions of analyzers and vegetative systems after exercise	Pronounced and persistent violations of the functions of analyzers and vegetative systems, deterioration of mental processes and biochemical parameters
Recovery activities	Short break	Long rest	Treatment and rehabilitation

In case of lack of rest, fatigue accumulates and becomes chronic, then a person needs a long rest to restore working capacity (several weeks, a month). If such a long rest is not provided and the person continues to work intensively, overwork develops, the pronounced forms of which require not only rest, but also treatment. K.K. Platonov identified four degrees of overwork.

In the later stages, marked fatigue manifests itself in general symptoms occurring in the most different types labor, regardless of its functional content. General fatigue includes the following signs: the lability of the processes of the central nervous system decreases, the state of health worsens, the level of activity decreases, attention becomes dull, it is difficult to maintain its concentration on the object of labor, coordination of movements worsens, the latent period of reactions increases, the sensitivity of all analyzers decreases, thinking becomes stereotyped, worsens mnemonic processes.

Table 3 Degrees of overwork.

Symptoms	The degree of overwork
I - beginning	II - light	III - pronounced	IV - heavy
Decreased capacity	Few	noticeably	Expressed	Sharp
The appearance of previously absent fatigue under load	With increased load	Under normal load	With light load	Without any load
Compensation by an effort of will for a decrease in legal capacity	Not required	Fully	Not completely	Minor
Emotional shifts	Occasional loss of interest in work	Mood instability at times	Irritability	Depression, severe irritability
Sleep disorders	Difficulty falling asleep or waking up	Many find it difficult to fall asleep or wake up	Daytime sleepiness	Insomnia
Decreased mental performance	No	Harder to focus	Forgetfulness at times	Marked impairment of attention and memory
Psychohygienic measures	Streamlining recreation, physical education, cultural entertainment	Another vacation and rest	It is necessary to accelerate the next vacation and organized rest	Treatment

The state of monotony and mental satiety in work. It is customary to call monotonous types of labor that are monotonous in content, which can give rise to a special functional state of monotony in the subject of activity. People experience this state as the need to perform boring, monotonous work, which, from the point of view of the employee, has no special meaning (except for earnings). The condition is characterized by drowsiness, indifference or negative attitude to work, reduced attention, psychogenic fatigue, which is formed already at the beginning of the working day.

Monotony is a specific functional state characterized by a decrease in the level of vital activity as a result of exposure to monotonous stimuli, that is, a decrease in external stimulation. Monotony most often occurs as a result of a work situation, but it can also be the result of an individual lifestyle or a consequence of prevailing life circumstances that cause boredom and “hunger of feelings”. A manifestation of working monotony is a dullness of the sharpness of attention, a weakening of the ability to switch it, a decrease in vigilance, quick wits, a weakening of the will, and the appearance of drowsiness. At the same time, an unpleasant emotional experience arises, consisting in the desire to get out of this situation. All these phenomena quickly disappear when a person enters a normal external environment.

When analyzing the nature of monotony, two circumstances should be taken into account: firstly, to clearly distinguish between work that, according to its objective indicators, is monotonous; secondly, the subjective attitude and various mental states caused by this work in individuals. In particular, some types of labor have features that allow them to be called, regardless of subjective assessment, monotonous types of labor. These features include: a high frequency of repetition of labor actions: a short time cycle for performing operations, a low-element quantitative composition of operations, structural uniformity of labor actions, and simplicity of labor actions. These are signs of mainly those works where the energy factor plays a leading role, that is, work with a pronounced physical component. Those works where the information factor predominates, that is, the tension of sensory mechanisms and certain mental functions is required, are considered monotonous if they are associated with long-term passive observation, lack the influx of sensory information, and have limited exposure to production signals and stimuli. In the types of labor that are characterized by sensory monotony (operators, drivers of transport), a state of reduced vigilance occurs, which is expressed in dulling attention, control and self-control, slowing down the processes of perception, motor reactions. A frequent companion of low vigilance is the appearance of drowsiness, which usually occurs 40-60 minutes after the start of activity.

The state of monotony is the result of the development of inhibition in the cerebral cortex. The result will be a drop in the excitability of the cortical centers due to the development of protective inhibition. The source for these changes in the CNS is both monotonous activity with low energy expenditure and a lack of sensory information. As a result, a neurophysiological conflict: on the one hand, a decrease in the activity of the central nervous system, on the other hand, the need to maintain a certain level of wakefulness, activation, that is, nervous tension, since one cannot quit work. This situation leads to the emergence of neurotic reactions, negative emotions, such as feelings of dissatisfaction, depression, decreased motivation and interest in work. Persons with a weak CNS with respect to excitation, with inert nervous processes are more resistant to monotony, and more often they are introverts with low anxiety. On the contrary, persons with a strong central nervous system and high mobility of nervous processes are less resistant to monotony. These are sociable persons, extroverts, emotionally unstable, with high anxiety (high neuroticism).

The psychological essence of monotonous work and its characteristic behavioral phenomena was investigated in the school of Kurt Lewin in the experiments of Anitra Karsten in the 1920s. The subjects were given tasks such as filling a sheet of paper with shading according to a pattern, reciting poetry aloud, placing thimbles in holes in a special tablet, and so on. In the instructions, the subjects were asked to perform the task as long as the desire to work persisted. They were allowed to stop working at any time. The researcher observed the peculiarities of the dynamics of behavior, recorded the statements of the subject, noted the manifestations of his emotional attitude to the task, to the situation of the experiment, to the experimenter.

A. Karsten found that muscle fatigue from the process of performing an experimental task was not the main reason for the decrease in the productivity of the subjects. The whole point was precisely in the reduction of the actual need to perform the experimental task, which was designated as the process of "saturation" (or mental satiety). The ability to continue the activity of the subject was provided either by his volitional efforts, or by rethinking the task, by changing the structure of the action being performed.

An essential role in the development of monotony is played by typological features of the personality. So, for example, monotony develops faster and is more pronounced in people with a strong nervous system. Persons with a weak nervous system and inertia of nervous processes have a high monotonous resistance. Personal temperament properties also influence the development of resistance to monotony. Persons with high rigidity, introversion and low neuroticism, persons with an average self-esteem, an intrapunitive orientation of frustration and an average level of claims are more persistent. Women are more resistant to monotony than men.

In the dynamics of productivity during monotony, there may be no period of high stability of productivity, more often fluctuations in productivity are found, reflecting bursts of volitional effort necessary for the employee to "spur himself on".

Monotonous work can be accompanied not only by a decrease in the level of activation, drowsiness and apathy. There are types of labor that require the performance of monotonous actions at a high pace. The load on the same muscle groups in this case can lead to occupational diseases in which the neuromuscular apparatus and ligaments suffer. For example, "writing spasm" is a functional movement disorder fine motor skills hands of people who have to write a lot at a fast pace. Such labor tasks can be considered as requiring not complication, but, on the contrary, simplification (Moikin Yu.V. et al., 1987).

Diagnosis of monotony. The state of monotony is characterized by a decrease in psychophysiological activity in the form of subjective and objective signs, that is, psychological and physiological indicators. Physiological indicators include, firstly, performance indicators (the quantity and quality of labor) and, secondly, changes in a number of physiological processes and functions. This is a decrease in the excitability and lability of the visual analyzer, an increase in the latent periods of visual-motor reactions, the development of inhibitory processes in the central nervous system with pronounced phase changes, a change in the electrical activity of the brain, a decrease in the tone of the sympathetic section of the central nervous system and an increase in the tone of the parasympathetic section of the NS - a drop in blood pressure, arrhythmia.

Monotonous work causes a complex of mental experiences that determine the subjective background of labor activity. The following subjective signs of monotony are noted: the appearance of an indifferent-apathetic state, a drop in interest; boredom, turning into a feeling of fatigue; drowsiness or drowsiness. Drowsiness during monotonous work, manifested in short-term breaks in the body's contact with the outside world, comes on suddenly and is just as quickly restored. In the system of determinants that determine a person's attitude to work, one of the first places is occupied by the monotony of labor. According to many researchers, 30-35% of respondents refer to monotony as the main reason for job dissatisfaction. The criterion of the dynamics of the subjective feeling of fatigue subjective fatigue associated with monotonous work begins to appear before the objective signs of fatigue (decrease in productivity, deterioration in quality).

Table 4. Ways to overcome the monotony of labor in industry

Object of influence	Way of influence	Mechanism of influence
Optimization of production technologies, means of labor	Automation of the production process, the use of automatic machines, robotic complexes instead of manual labor Ergonomic optimization of the equipment, machines, workplaces used	Transfer of functions in the production of a product in large series from a person to a machine. Releasing a person from routine repetitive operations, a person becomes not an operator-appendage of the machine, but an operator-technologist, an adjuster of an automatic line.
Optimization of the design of types of work and forms of labor organization, taking into account the requirements of psychology and psychophysiology of labor	Conveyor-flow organization of labor Introduction of optimal modes of work and rest Rotation on the conveyor, alternation of operations Choice of forms of material and moral incentives for labor Design of enlarged operations, enrichment of the content of labor Influence of color in the production interior Ensuring the structural integrity and completeness of the work task Informing employees about the product of labor, its purpose, increasing the meaningfulness of the content of labor Ensuring feedback on the results of labor Team work instead of individual in-line work	Reducing work fatigue, creating conditions for working with a “skill” instead of using forms of expanded conscious control Changing the types of work load during the shift Optimizing labor motives Creating a working mood, caring for the safety of workers, managing their state of attention and vigilance. Complication of labor tasks, involving the improvement of the qualifications of employees, the growth of their self-esteem, the emergence of interest in the content of work, their achievements (but within feasible loads) Reducing the burden on the emotional-volitional sphere The possibility of communication between employees in the process of work
Correction of unfavorable functional states of employees	Industrial gymnastics, outdoor activities Creation of ways to respond to negative emotions Functional music Bibliotherapy and other forms of cultural leisure Sleep, passive recreation Temperature effects Massage, physiotherapy Pharmacotherapy and effects on taste buds Methods of neuromuscular relaxation Self-hypnosis and suggestion Individually-oriented training in optimal styles of self-regulation of the state.	The use of self-regulation tools in managing the functional state of employees general level activation under afferent influences (cold, gustatory influences, etc.) Elimination of the phenomena of local fatigue and muscle fatigue Change in the structure of labor actions when monotonous operations are included as additional ones in other actions in terms of meaning during self-suggestion

In the prevention of monotony, measures should be aimed at: increasing the level of activation of the central nervous system, increasing the emotional tone, motivation of the subject; ensuring the optimal level of sensory and motor load; elimination of objective factors of labor monotony. As organizational measures, it is recommended to carry out the alternation of production operations, the creation of rational modes of work and rest, when 8 to 30% of working time is allocated for rest. Psychological measures: providing conditions for the manifestation of purely personal, subjective techniques and methods that weaken the influence of monotonous labor (the possibility of interpersonal contacts and verbal communication, solving issues of economy and rationalization of movements); stimulation of interest in the work itself and its results, strengthening the target orientation of labor, involving the employee in the organization of labor, encouraging initiative.

Allocate sensory and motor forms of monotony. Sensory monotony how the state of the subject of labor arises in conditions of monotony, poverty of impressions. motor monotony occurs when an employee performs repetitive labor actions and operations. The monotony of labor of a mild degree is noted with a duration of operations of 31-100 seconds; severe forms of motor monotony are possible with a duration of repetitive operations of 5-9 or 1-4 seconds.

Tension. The nature of the functioning of the physiological and psychological systems of the body that ensure the activity made it possible to identify various options for the state tension. Based on the analysis of changes in the psychophysiological price of activity, there are productive and unproductive forms tension. The predominance of the intuitive or emotional-activation components of the activity determines the development emotional or operational tension. A generalized and quantitative indicator of the cost of activity, developed on the basis of psychophysiological parameters, is used in ergonomic studies to optimize the conditions of detention and modes of work, to evaluate the prediction of working capacity.

The intensity of work is determined by a decrease in the amount of time allotted for the performance of any operations, actions, decision-making. Lack of time, that is, the actual lack of time for the full completion of any process, operation by a person, a group of people is often used in two meanings:

Limitation of time to perform any work;

An acute insufficiency of the corresponding ability of a person to perform certain actions, in this case, the lack of time is considered as a stress factor.

The time limit for many types of labor activity is associated with:

Reception and processing of large volumes of information in a hard time mode;

With a high pace of complex performing activities;

With a different combination of the first two factors.

The main prerequisites for the emergence of time pressure are:

High rate of receipt of signals requiring immediate response;

The short duration of the existence of the signal;

A large amount of information simultaneously coming to a person;

A sharp, sudden violation requiring expert human intervention;

Individual qualities of an employee: insufficient training, unfavorable functional state, insufficient speed, insufficient expression of professionally important psychological qualities and others;

Unsuccessful organization of labor and workplace;

Uncomfortable external conditions of activity.

Lack of time can have both a positive (optimizing) and negative (disorganizing) effect on human activity. The organizing influence is associated with the restructuring of activities aimed at maintaining the reliability and efficiency of its implementation in difficult conditions. The disorganization of activity is possible mainly in conditions of an acute shortage of time to perform the required actions. Such activity is accompanied by mental tension, mistakes, impulsiveness of actions and inadequacy of reactions.

The development of optimal modes of work and rest, the adequate organization of the production process and the conditions for its flow, the regulation of labor, the prevention and treatment of occupational diseases, the selection and placement of personnel, the optimization of the process of industrial training - this is not a complete list of the most important practical problems, the solution of which is impossible without the involvement of data on the specifics and features of various functional states of the employee.

Examples of traditionally studied types of functional states include fatigue, monotony, tension, and various forms of stress.

The most significant for identifying the specifics of the functional state are indicators of the activity of various parts of the central nervous system, cardiovascular, respiratory, motor, endocrine and other systems.

Different states are characterized by certain shifts in the course of the main mental processes: perception, attention, memory, thinking and the emotional sphere.

The human condition cannot be represented as a simple change in the functioning of any one system of the body. It is a complex systemic reaction of an individual.

So, for example, the state of fatigue is characterized by quite definite shifts in the activity of the cardiovascular system. When exposed to intense and prolonged load, the energy needs of the body increase, which inevitably leads to an increase in the speed and volume of blood flow. As fatigue develops, a decrease in the strength of heart contractions is observed first of all. The speed and volume of blood flow necessary to perform work can be maintained for some time by increasing the frequency of contractions and increasing vascular tone. Therefore, it is not the symptoms of increased heart rate, high blood pressure and changes in minute blood volume in their direct quantitative expression that are diagnostically significant for the state of fatigue, but the direction and magnitude of shifts in these indicators and the relationships between them.

Attempts to describe, and even more so evaluate the functional state of a person in general, regardless of the type of real activity in the process of which it arises and the effectiveness of which determines, cannot lead to success. The main criterion, on the basis of which conclusions regarding changes in the functional state can be considered legitimate, is a decrease or increase in the efficiency of performing individual actions or the entire labor process. Critically important in this case are not only pronounced changes in the quantitative indicators of labor productivity, but also qualitative changes in the nature and methods of performing work.

Between the definition of the functional state and the main criterion for its evaluation - i.e. the effectiveness of the user's activity - there is a certain contradiction. It consists in the richness and variety of mental and physiological processes included in the functional state and the relative scarcity and one-sidedness of the main criterion for its evaluation. Of course, a laboratory experiment makes it possible to use a large number of additional hardware methods for diagnosing a functional state: electrocardiography, electroencephalography, myograms, etc. However, the practice of computerization forces us to abandon cumbersome laboratory methods. At the same time, there is an acute need for reliable methods for measuring not only the effectiveness of the user's activity, but also the psychological and psychophysiological reasons for its changes.

It is shown that the deterioration of the functional state of a computer user is largely determined by failures in the cognitive (cognitive) sphere of a person. Some processes of processing visual information are disturbed: the inertia of the memory trace increases, its coding in short-term memory becomes more difficult, access to long-term memory deteriorates, and semantic transformations are violated. In order to prevent all these violations, they must be detected in a timely manner. If this can be achieved, a new page will open in the development of so-called adaptive user interfaces that change the mode of operation depending on the functional state of the user.

Types of functional states of a person

The initial idea for most modern researchers is the idea of ​​the existence of some ordering of the set of states. Changes in a person's state can be represented as a moving point within this set. However, its content is described using different concepts developed on the basis of specific aspects of the study of the problem.

In physiological studies, the analysis of functional states is most often carried out in terms of activation theory. In the most general sense, ACTIVATION is understood as the degree of energy mobilization necessary for the implementation of a particular behavioral act.

The concept of activation owes its success, first of all, to the activation theory and data on the activity of a non-specific formation of the brain - the reticular formation. Its functioning directly determines the level of activation of various physiological systems of the body and, therefore, plays a leading role in the regulation of functional states.

The study of the dynamics of performance and fatigue has become traditional. The most common definition of fatigue is a temporary decrease in performance under the influence of a load. At the same time, physical and mental fatigue, acute and chronic fatigue are fundamentally different.

There is a problem of distinguishing between fatigue and other conditions that are also related to performance dynamics. So, there are three close, but not identical conditions that lead to a decrease in work efficiency - fatigue, monotony and mental satiety. If fatigue can be characterized as a natural reaction associated with an increase in tension, primarily to the duration of the work performed, then the other two conditions are the consequences of the monotony of the activity performed in specific conditions (poverty of the external environment, a limited field of work, simple stereotyped actions, etc. .).

Differences between these states are manifested both in behavior and in the nature of the subjective experiences that accompany them. For monotony, the main trend in the shifts of the observed parameters is a gradual decrease in the activity of the corresponding processes. Fatigue, on the contrary, is characterized by an increase in tension in the activities of various systems and an increase in the mismatch between individual indicators.

Depending on the type of load, various types of fatigue are distinguished, in the most general form - mental and physical. If the first type is characterized by changes in the sensorimotor sphere and the subjective sensations accompanying them, then the second type is more characterized by symptoms of mental exhaustion, primarily shifts in perception, memory, attention and thinking.

For many years, scientists have sought to identify and, where possible, measure fatigue due to various environmental factors. There are a large number of studies describing the causal relationships of human fatigue and the characteristics of his work and work environment. Some have succeeded in describing practical situations of the connection between fatigue and individual behavior at work. However, a complete system of links between individual aspects of labor activity and the production environment has not yet been created.

Most research methods go in two directions: the study of objective performance indicators in response to certain tasks and professional situations, and the study of subjective indicators.

Objective methods highlight the constituent parts of the job and describe the "human factor" in each phase or component tasks. These methods may be suitable for the task of studying fatigue when the components of fatigue are defined precisely and there is a scale according to which the measurement of fatigue intensity is possible. However, there are still enough problems in determining this scale, and, above all, when the researchers themselves try to identify external, objective quantities associated with fatigue.

It should be said that a person is able to independently, "from the inside" describe the nature and intensity of his own fatigue. This is used in subjective methods. The subject is required to describe his own state, based on questionnaires. The first problem is to formulate the questions correctly. This requires a clear understanding of the components of the production load. In addition, the questions should be clear, unambiguous and precise enough to help the employee to clearly formulate his opinion.

The technique of subjective survey is used quite often in many industries. However, there is no single questionnaire that can reliably compare the degree of workload and fatigue in different types of work. A comparative study of differences in fatigue when performing the same labor task in different ways is not yet possible; for example, with a new way of organizing activities or with the introduction of technical innovations.

Each person has, in accordance with his physical and mental constitution, certain possibilities and limits in productivity. And if these possibilities and limits are not taken into account, along with the organizational and technical aspects of work, then the phenomenon of overstrain and overwork arises. Each of us reacts differently to changes in the organizational and technical structure of work. Any innovation can affect different people in different ways. Much depends on the attitude to work, its prestige, as well as on the personal motivation of the worker.

When analyzing tension in a particular type of work, first of all, they try to find out which personal, professional or external factors and to what extent are responsible for this. Only then can reasonable assumptions be made that can optimize performance.

First, they try to establish the type of fatigue experienced by a person, then the degree of fatigue and the way fatigue affects the work task, as well as the circumstances that contribute to the development of fatigue to a greater or lesser extent. In addition, it is important to study the personality of the employee and his attitude to work.

The objective and subjective reactions of a person are clearly manifested in three aspects:

1. in individual experience, i.e. in personal opinion, subjective statements;
2. in the magnitude and changes in labor productivity (in the change in the number of errors, the magnitude of productivity and its stability);
3. in physiological reactions; for example, EEG activity, respiratory rate, pulse, etc.

At first, researchers tried to distinguish criteria for physical and mental fatigue based on these three categories of responses. The problem was that there was no sufficiently reliable and high-quality method for the general description of these reactions. And the need for such a method grew in proportion to how it turned out that many situations of falling productivity and even failures are inextricably linked precisely with the psychological aspects of work.

The concept of fatigue has not yet been defined, its many symptoms remain disordered. Some of them can only be described subjectively, based on the experience of an individual user, his ability to accurately describe his feelings. Other symptoms are evaluated only objectively. They are expressed with a sufficient degree of certainty in violations of the following mental processes:

1. receiving and processing information;
2. eye-motor coordination;
3. attention and concentration;
4. motor and control functions;
5. social manifestations.

Fatigue is a rather flexible concept for which there is no one-dimensional definition. Many researchers consider FATIGUE as a REACTION to ANY KIND OF PHYSICAL OR MENTAL STRESS, WHICH MANIFESTS IN THE FORM OF A REVERSIBLE REDUCTION IN THE PRODUCTIVITY OF A HUMAN OR ITS ORGANS. The causes and manifestation of fatigue can be described using three main concepts:

1. LOAD: fatigue is the result of one or more types of physical or mental stress;
2. DECLINE IN WORKING CAPABILITY: fatigue leads to a reduction in mental performance;
3. REVERSIBLE: fatigue is reversible, i.e. its influence is reversible.

Fatigue may occur in different forms Oh. The type of fatigue to which the user is subject and the expected intensity of this fatigue should be carefully assessed. There are the following types and causes of user fatigue:

1. VISUAL fatigue as a result of the load of the visual system when working at the display;
2. MUSCLE fatigue due to the predominance of static muscle load;
3. GENERAL fatigue of the body as a result of the overall mental load and pace of work;
4. MENTAL fatigue due to spiritual overstrain;
5. CHRONIC fatigue due to the combined action of several types of fatigue;
6. subjective FEELING of fatigue due to prolonged exposure information flow while working on a computer.

Of course, it would be possible to single out the types of fatigue in another way, using other designations. Here, first of all, the practical value of such a classification is important. When assessing the degree of fatigue by the level of productivity, it seems reasonable to say that there is a direct RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LEVEL of fatigue and CHANGES in PRODUCTIVITY. To study user fatigue when working at a computer screen, the following phenomena have been identified:

1. reduced ability to receive visual stimuli, reduced speed of perception, errors in interpretation of stimuli;
2. reduced attention and concentration, increased error rate, large fluctuations in productivity;
3. impaired oculomotor coordination.

However, it often happens that there is no decrease in productivity and no increase in the number of errors, although the user clearly shows a sense of fatigue. This seemingly paradoxical phenomenon, on closer examination, fits very well with activation theory. By consciously raising the level of activation, a certain symptom of fatigue can be overcome. Some people can even increase their productivity despite the obvious symptoms of fatigue. In tasks with increased responsibility for the result, compensatory activation is achieved more easily. However, this comes at a cost. Mental stress, intensified by increased activation, can manifest itself outside of production. Excessive overwork at work leads to physiological disorders and diseases, to the “curvature” of social contacts.

Diagnosis of fatigue by objective parameters

Most of these diagnostic methods require a lot of time, complex tools and detailed knowledge in the field of physiology and psychophysiology. In addition, restrictions on freedom of movement and other sources of inconvenience lead to completely uncharacteristic behavior of users, which must be taken into account without fail. To obtain reasonable results, the number of subjects must be large enough. All these factors make physiological methods not very efficient. If you try to solve the problem by reducing the number of subjects, then the reliability and objectivity of the results may fall hopelessly. Characteristic of the experiments is the phase of the subject's getting used to the unusual position. Taking into account and interpreting all of the above factors requires a rather complex system of substantiating the legitimacy of the results obtained by the physiological method. The work of the user can be evaluated not only on the basis of physiological indicators, but also with the help of performance indicators. The efficiency of obtaining these indicators can be achieved using a computer. If we provide a built-in subroutine in the software for measuring such parameters as intervals between clicks, the number and duration of pauses, the number of errors and corrections for certain time intervals. And then calculate some criteria to distinguish average from bad, then this will automatically track the dynamics of the user's performance, which is considered a symptom of his functional state. Such studies have already been carried out. However, their results have not received wide practical distribution in our country for various reasons. However, they should be recognized as very promising, because. data of this kind are the basis for the development of so-called adaptive user interfaces that change the mode of presenting information to the user (volume, sequence, response time) depending on the level of his performance.

Diagnosis of fatigue on subjective grounds

When they want to find out the reactions of a person related to his work or working conditions, two methods are mainly used. In both cases, the questionnaire and interview are used to obtain information about the main symptoms of fatigue and individual reactions to it. If graduated scales are also used for this, then this greatly facilitates the analysis of the results. In the first case, the user is asked to answer certain questions about their current state. For this purpose, the answer is given in the form of a number (scale position) selected by the user from a number of others. The value of the number expresses the intensity of sensation at a given moment in time. In the second case, the subject is asked to answer a question based on his past experience and experiences. The results of such a survey are well processed using multivariate analysis, which allows you to find the basis of the received data. Since the phenomena of physical and mental fatigue, as well as the way they are described, can greatly depend on the personality and attitudes of the subject, one should also try to get his personality profile, especially in relation to stability and introversion / extraversion. The factors that cause increased user motivation also require deeper study.

The dynamics of fatigue

In the development of fatigue, several phases or different stages can be distinguished. The traditional way to identify these phases is to analyze the so-called "operability curve" - ​​the relationship between the effectiveness of an activity and the time it takes to complete it. In contrast to the initial attempts to characterize the dynamics of working capacity only on the basis of external performance indicators, in modern studies and in terms of the development of the emotional stress of a working person, as well as the levels of subjective feeling of fatigue. A sufficiently accurate characterization of a particular human condition can be obtained by comparing the indicators achieved on each of these four curves. It is easy to single out the general, most typical stages: at the beginning of work, a period of working out is observed, then periods of optimal performance of the activity, fatigue and "final impulse" follow. However, their duration, alternation and severity are determined by the influence of many factors and can vary up to the complete loss of some of them. If, however, the nature of the change in the functioning of the main psychophysiological systems is taken as the basis for distinguishing periods of working capacity, then its more subtle dynamics can be traced. So, in the period of working out, the phases of mobilization, primary reaction and hypercompensation can be distinguished, the period of optimal performance corresponds to the compensation phase, and the phases of subcompensation, decompensation, final impulse and progressive decrease in productivity constitute the content of the fatigue period. As we can see, fatigue develops only in the last stages of the performance curve. The first external signs of fatigue testify to the insufficiency of the attracted compensatory means of the body to maintain the efficiency of activity at a given level. Restoration of the initial level of performance occurs only after the cessation of work that caused fatigue. If the duration of the rest period is insufficient, then the effects of accumulation of fatigue are observed. This leads to the development of fatigue and its extreme, close to pathological form - overwork. Thus, fatigue can be considered both as a short-term and as a state unfolded in time. There are different symptoms for acute and chronic fatigue. To increase labor productivity, prevent diseases, reduce accidents and other tasks, it is of particular importance to study the effects of fatigue accumulation. The first symptoms of chronic fatigue are a variety of subjective sensations - persistent fatigue, increased fatigue, drowsiness, lethargy, etc. Discussion of the question of the content characteristics of different types of functional states is impossible without addressing the issue of stress. STRESS is a non-specific general reaction of the body in response to extreme environmental influences. It is essential to know the main stages of stress development:

1. the initial stage of anxiety, following immediately after the extreme impact and expressed in a sharp drop in the body's resistance;
2. the stage of resistance, characterized by the manifestation of the adaptive capabilities of the body and the restoration of not only the initial level, but also a significant increase in resistance;
3. the stage of exhaustion, expressed in a persistent drop in the level of resistance and indicating the depletion of the body's reserve forces.

It is important to note that the duration of individual stages can vary significantly: from several minutes from the moment of exposure to an unfavorable factor to several months and even years. The latter refers to the stages of resistance and exhaustion. The list of causes of stress (stressors) is very diverse - from simple physical characteristics of the situation (temperature, pressure, noise, physical and chemical composition of air, etc.) to complex psychological and socio-psychological factors. In many cases, it is more appropriate to speak of combined types of stressors. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the qualitative heterogeneity of simultaneously acting causes, the specifics of the individual's response to each of them separately, and the nature of the interaction of various stressors with each other, which is not reduced to a simple sum of their effects. There are physiological and psychological types of stress. These types of reactions differ in the mechanisms of their occurrence, since physiological stress is a direct reaction of the body to adverse effects, and psychological stress involves the inclusion of mental processes in stress and has a more complex structure.

Correction of functional states

Prevention of unfavorable functional states is understood as a set of measures aimed at preventing the development or eliminating (completely or partially) already existing conditions. In a production situation, any optimization work aimed at facilitating human labor can be considered as the prevention of unfavorable functional conditions. The following areas of such work are distinguished:

• improvement of means of labor;
• rationalization of jobs;
• optimization of the regime of work and rest;
• the use of alternating operations with a load on different functional systems;
• normalization of production environment factors;
• creation of a favorable socio-psychological climate.

Let us briefly dwell on the optimization of the work and rest regime, which can be based on the analysis of the performance curve for this category of users. Such an analysis makes it possible to identify critical moments characterized by a significant decrease in productivity and an increase in fatigue. The time of assignment of a break should fall on the initial periods of the state change, i.e. precede the appearance of a pronounced shift in the performance curve. The opinion is often expressed that the beneficial effect of short and frequent pauses is greater than in the case of longer and rarer ones. Indeed, for many types of work, especially monotonous, the presence of frequent short breaks for rest is highly desirable. It should be noted that there is no general definition of the term BREAK for different types of human activities. A break can be interpreted both as a time of inactivity, and as a special phase in the performance of a task, and as a break in work, and finally, as a special period of rest. Some authors include breaks and periods of inactivity that arise from the very organization of the task, such as waiting time while working at a computer. Others classify such inaction as a condition that does not facilitate, but complicates the activity. In most professions, this wait provides the body with a certain period of rest, but does not reduce the overall workload to which the user is subject. This applies primarily to those waiting periods that entail mental tension, because. their duration is difficult to predict, and they occur in critical moments of functioning of the "user-computer" system. With regard to work behind a computer screen, it makes sense to use the concept of a BREAK only in the case of a pause of rest, which completes the period of tension that arose in the previous segments of work. The characteristics of this tension and the relative magnitude of physiological and mental fatigue vary depending on the characteristics of the preceding task. Thus, the time during which a person is inactive, but cannot abandon the previous task, cannot be called a "break". It is only a pause, whose significance for rest is not determined by the duration of apparent inactivity. In addition to the above activities, an approach called psychoprophylaxis of adverse functional states is used. As methods of psychoprophylaxis are used:

1. psychotherapy;
2. power optimization;
3. pharmacotherapy;
4. functional music;
5. autogenic training and hypnosis;
6. massage and self-massage;
7. industrial gymnastics;
8. ) color design of the premises;
9. creation of rooms of mental unloading.

For each specific production situation, a set of psychoprophylactic measures is developed as a result of significant analytical work, which involves diagnosing the specifics of specific adverse conditions and choosing the most effective methods that act on them.

Working posture and fatigue

Computer users often complain of pain in their arms, lower back, and sometimes headaches. Only recently it turned out that all these complaints are caused by a single reason - the wrong working posture. The need to apply accurate finger strikes to a small keyboard area forces a person to stabilize the position of his own body for a long time. The forced position negatively affects blood circulation, bringing it to spasms of the vessels of the body, neck and head. Based on these data, we can offer the following recommendations to reduce fatigue when working with the keyboard.

1. The optimal position is the vertical position of the body with a right angle in the hip and knee joints.
2. It is necessary to pay more attention to the selection of furniture with the required dimensions.
3. The best is furniture with variable linear parameters.
4. The back of the worker should rest on the back of a chair or armchair.
5. The elbows should rest on the armrests.
6. Quite frequent rest breaks are needed, which are best used for minimal exercise.
7. Short but frequent breaks are more effective than long but infrequent ones.

The simplest exercises aimed at relaxing the body and normalizing blood circulation are as follows:

1. without getting up from the chair, raise your hands up - to the sides and stretch;
2. throw your hands behind your head and make several turns of the body to the right and left;
3. massage the neck and back of the head;
4. interlock your fingers into the lock and rotate them 45-60 degrees.

After the regular implementation of this simple complex, the state of health improves significantly in the vast majority of users.

Fight visual fatigue

When working at a computer, a number of symptoms of visual fatigue are observed: a decrease in the speed of perception and an increase in identification errors, large fluctuations in productivity and deterioration in oculomotor coordination, a general deterioration in well-being and pain in the eyes. Through conscious effort, it is possible to increase the level of activation of the body and temporarily overcome these symptoms. Some workers can even increase their productivity despite all the symptoms of fatigue. However, this comes at a cost. The main, often mentioned hygienic requirement for people working at a computer: without exception, all visual defects must be corrected with glasses! The next requirement concerns rest breaks: 15 minutes of every hour of work must be dedicated to active recreation. At the same time, the total duration of work with the terminal should not exceed 5 hours, and the breaks should be filled with relaxation exercises for the eyes. The fact is that the adjustment and focusing of vision on an object is provided by two groups of muscles - oculomotor and ciliary, which focus the lens. These are the muscles that are most susceptible to fatigue. They need to be "kneaded" during the break. The exercise for this is very simple. So, the ciliary muscles relax when looking at distant objects. Therefore, their warm-up involves the translation of the gaze from close objects to distant ones and vice versa. The oculomotor muscles get tired when the gaze is held on one object for a long time and warm up with a wide variety of movements - rotational, vertical. When performing these exercises, it is better to close your eyes. Questions for self-examination:

1. What is the difference between stress and emotional tension?
2. Why is the term "activation" used as a general term to characterize fatigue and relaxation?
3. List and characterize the stages of development of the functional state during the working day.

The functional state of a person characterizes his activity in a specific direction, in specific conditions, with a specific supply of vital energy. A.B. Leonova emphasizes that the concept of a functional state is introduced to characterize the efficiency side of a person's activity or behavior. We are talking about the ability of a person in a particular state to perform a certain type of activity.

The state of a person can be described using a variety of manifestations: changes in the functioning of physiological systems (central nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory, motor, endocrine, etc.), shifts in the course of mental processes (sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, imagination, attention), subjective experiences.

IN AND. Medvedev proposed the following definition of functional states: “The functional state of a person is understood as an integral complex of the available characteristics of those functions and qualities of a person that directly or indirectly determine the performance of an activity.”

Functional states are determined by many factors. Therefore, the human condition that arises in each specific situation is always unique. However, among the variety of special cases, some general classes of states are quite clearly distinguished:

- the state of normal life;

- pathological conditions;

- border conditions.

The criteria for assigning a state to a certain class are the reliability and cost of activity. Using the reliability criterion, the functional state is characterized in terms of a person's ability to perform activities at a given level of accuracy, timeliness, and reliability. According to the activity price indicators, an assessment of the functional state is given in terms of the degree of exhaustion of the body's forces and, ultimately, its impact on human health.

On the basis of these criteria, the entire set of functional states in relation to labor activity is divided into two main classes - permissible and unacceptable, or, as they are also called, permitted and prohibited.

The question of assigning one or another functional state to a certain class is specially considered in each individual case. So, it is a mistake to consider the state of fatigue as unacceptable, although it leads to a decrease in the efficiency of activity and is an obvious consequence of the depletion of psychophysical resources. Such degrees of fatigue are unacceptable, in which the efficiency of activity exceeds the lower limits of a given norm (assessment by the criterion of reliability) or symptoms of accumulation of fatigue appear, leading to overwork (assessment by the criterion of the price of activity).

Excessive stress of the physiological and psychological resources of a person is a potential source of various diseases. It is on this basis that normal and pathological conditions are distinguished. The last class is the subject of medical research. The presence of borderline conditions can lead to illness. So, typical consequences of prolonged stress experience are diseases of the cardiovascular system, digestive tract, neuroses. Chronic overwork is a borderline state in relation to overwork - a pathological condition of a neurotic type. Therefore, all borderline conditions in labor activity are classified as unacceptable. Oki require the introduction of appropriate preventive measures, in the development of which psychologists should also take a direct part.

Another classification of functional states is based on the criterion of the adequacy of a person's response to the requirements of the activity being performed. According to this concept, all human states are divided into two groups - states of adequate mobilization and states of dynamic mismatch.

The states of adequate mobilization are characterized by the degree of tension of a person's functional capabilities corresponding to the requirements imposed by specific conditions of activity. It can be disturbed under the influence of a variety of reasons: duration of activity, increased intensity of load, accumulation of fatigue, etc. Then there are states dynamic mismatch. Here, the efforts exceed those necessary to achieve this result of the activity.

Within this classification, almost all states of a working person can be characterized. The analysis of human states in the process of long-term work is usually carried out by studying the phases of the dynamics of working capacity, within which the formation and characteristic features of fatigue are specifically considered. Characteristics of activities in terms of the amount of effort expended on the work involves the allocation of different levels of intensity of activity.

The traditional field of study of functional states in psychology is the study of the dynamics of performance and fatigue. Fatigue is a natural reaction associated with increased stress during prolonged work. WITH On the physiological side, the development of fatigue indicates the depletion of the internal reserves of the body and the transition to less beneficial ways of functioning of the systems: the maintenance of the minute volume of blood flow is carried out by increasing the heart rate instead of increasing the stroke volume, motor reactions are realized by a large number of functional muscle units with a weakening of the force of contraction of individual muscle fibers and others. This finds expression in disturbances in the stability of vegetative functions, a decrease in the strength and speed of muscle contraction, a mismatch in mental functions, difficulties in the development and inhibition of conditioned reflexes. As a result, the pace of work slows down, accuracy, rhythm and coordination of movements are violated.

As fatigue grows, significant changes are observed in the course of various mental processes. This state is characterized by a noticeable decrease in the sensitivity of various sense organs, along with an increase in the inertia of these processes. This is manifested in an increase in the absolute and differential sensitivity thresholds, a decrease in the critical flicker fusion frequency, and an increase in the brightness and duration of successive images. Often, with fatigue, the reaction speed decreases - the time of a simple sensorimotor reaction and a choice reaction increase. However, a paradoxical (at first glance) increase in the speed of responses, accompanied by an increase in the number of errors, can also be observed.

Fatigue leads to the disintegration of the performance of complex motor skills. The most pronounced and significant signs of fatigue are impaired attention - the amount of attention narrows, the functions of switching and distribution of attention suffer, that is, conscious control over the performance of activities worsens.

On the part of the processes that ensure the memorization and preservation of information, fatigue primarily leads to difficulties in retrieving information stored in long-term memory. There is also a decrease in indicators of short-term memory, which is associated with a deterioration in the retention of information in the system of short-term storage.

The effectiveness of the thinking process is significantly reduced due to the predominance of stereotyped ways of solving problems in situations requiring new decisions, or violation of the purposefulness of intellectual acts.

As fatigue develops, the motives of activity are transformed. If in the early stages the “business” motivation is preserved, then the motives for stopping the activity or leaving it become predominant. If you continue to work in a state of fatigue, this leads to the formation of negative emotional reactions.

The described symptom complex of fatigue is represented by a variety of subjective sensations, familiar to everyone as an experience of fatigue.

When analyzing the process of labor activity, four stages of working capacity are distinguished:

1) stage of development;

2) the stage of optimal performance;

3) stage of fatigue;

4) the stage of the "final impulse".

They are followed by a mismatch of work activity. Restoring the optimal level of performance requires stopping the activity that caused fatigue for such a period of time that is necessary for both passive and active rest. In cases where the duration or usefulness of periods of rest is insufficient, there is an accumulation, or cumulation, of fatigue.

The first symptoms of chronic fatigue are a variety of subjective sensations - feelings of constant fatigue, increased fatigue, drowsiness, lethargy, etc. At the initial stages of its development, objective signs are not very pronounced. But the appearance of chronic fatigue can be judged by the change in the ratio of periods of working capacity, first of all, the stages of working out and optimal working capacity.

The term "tension" is also used to study a wide range of states of a working person. The degree of intensity of activity is determined by the structure of the labor process, in particular the content of the workload, its intensity, saturation of activity, etc. In this sense, tension is interpreted from the point of view of the requirements imposed by a particular type of labor on a person. On the other hand, the intensity of activity can be characterized by psychophysiological costs (price of activity) necessary to achieve the labor goal. In this case, tension is understood as the amount of effort applied by a person to solve the problem.

There are two main classes of states of tension: specific, which determines the dynamics and intensity of psychophysiological processes that underlie the performance of specific labor skills, and nonspecific, which characterizes the general psychophysiological resources of a person and generally ensures the level of performance.

The influence of tension on vital activity was confirmed by the following experiment: they took the neuromuscular apparatus of a frog (the gastrocnemius muscle and the nerve that innervates it) and the gastrocnemius muscle without a nerve, and connected batteries from a flashlight to both preparations. After some time, the muscle that received irritation through the nerve stopped contracting, and the muscle that received irritation directly from the battery contracted for several more days. From this, psychophysiologists concluded: a muscle can work for a long time. She is practically indefatigable. The pathways - the nerves - get tired. More precisely, synapses and ganglions, articulations of nerves.

Consequently, in order to optimize the process of labor activity, there are large reserves of full-fledged regulation of states, which are largely hidden in the correct organization of the functioning of a person as a biological organism and as a person.

2. Maintenance requirements

Efficiency is the ability to work in a certain rhythm for a certain amount of time. The performance characteristics are neuropsychic stability, the pace of production activity, and human fatigue.

The working capacity limit as a variable depends on the specific conditions:

- health,

- balanced diet,

- age,

- the value of the reserve capabilities of a person (strong or weak nervous system),

– sanitary and hygienic working conditions,

– professional training and experience,

– motivation,

- direction of personality.

Among the mandatory conditions that ensure human performance and prevent overwork, an important place is occupied by the correct alternation of work and rest. In this regard, one of the tasks of the manager is to create an optimal regime of work and rest for the staff. The regime should be established taking into account the characteristics of a particular profession, the nature of the work performed, specific working conditions, and the individual psychological characteristics of workers. First of all, the frequency, duration and content of breaks depend on it. Breaks for rest during the working day must necessarily precede the start of the expected decline in working capacity, and not be appointed later.

Psychophysiologists have established that psychological vigor begins at 6 o'clock in the morning and is maintained for 7 hours without much hesitation, but no more. Further performance requires increased willpower. The improvement of the circadian biological rhythm begins again at about 3 p.m. and continues for the next two hours. By 18 o'clock psychological vigor gradually decreases, and by 19 o'clock there are specific changes in behavior: a decrease in mental stability gives rise to a predisposition to nervousness, increases the tendency to conflict over an insignificant issue. Some people get headaches, psychologists call this time a critical point. By 20 o'clock the psyche is activated again, the reaction time is reduced, the person reacts faster to signals. This state continues further: by 21 o'clock the memory is especially sharpened, it becomes capable of capturing much that was not possible during the day. Then there is a drop in working capacity, by 23 o'clock the body is preparing for rest, at 24 o'clock the one who went to bed at 22 o'clock is already dreaming.

In the afternoon there are 2 most critical periods: 1 - around 19 hours, 2 - around 22 hours. For employees working at this time, special volitional tension and increased attention are required. The most dangerous period is 4 o'clock in the morning, when all the physical and mental capabilities of the body are close to zero.

Performance fluctuates throughout the week. The costs of labor productivity on the first and sometimes on the second day of the working week are well known. Efficiency also undergoes seasonal changes associated with the seasons (in the spring it worsens).

In order to avoid harmful overwork, to restore strength, as well as to form what can be called readiness for work, rest is necessary. To prevent overwork of employees, the so-called "micropauses" are expedient, i.e. short-term, lasting 5-10 minutes, breaks during work. In the subsequent time, the restoration of functions slows down and is less effective: the more monotonous, monotonous the work, the more often there should be breaks. In developing work and rest schedules, the manager should strive to replace a small number of long breaks with shorter but more frequent ones. In the service sector, where a lot of nervous tension is required, short but frequent 5-minute breaks are desirable, and in the second half of the working day, due to more pronounced fatigue, the rest time should be longer than in the pre-lunch period. As a rule, such "respite" in modern organizations is not welcome. Paradoxically, but true: in a more favorable position are smokers who interrupt at least every hour. focusing on a cigarette. Apparently, this is why it is so difficult to get rid of smoking in institutions, because there is no alternative for him yet to recuperate during a short rest, which no one organizes.

In the middle of the working day, no later than 4 hours after the start of work, a lunch break (40-60 minutes) is introduced.

There are three types of long rest to recuperate after work:

1. Rest after a working day. First of all - a fairly long and sound sleep (7-8 hours). Lack of sleep cannot be compensated for by any other type of recreation. In addition to sleep, active rest is recommended, for example, playing sports after hours, which greatly contributes to the body's resistance to fatigue at work.

2. Day off. On this day, it is important to plan such activities in order to enjoy. It is the reception of pleasure that best restores the body from physical and mental overload. If such events are not planned, then the ways of getting pleasure may be inadequate: alcohol, overeating, quarrels with neighbors, etc. But the role of the leader here is reduced only to unobtrusive advice, since the employees plan this time on their own.

3. The longest vacation is vacation. Its timing is set by management, but planning also remains with the employees. The head (trade union committee) can only give advice on organizing recreation and help with the purchase of vouchers for spa treatment.

To restore working capacity, additional methods such as relaxation (relaxation), autogenic training, meditation, and psychological training are also used.

Relaxation

Not all problems associated with fatigue can be solved by rest in its various forms. Of great importance is the organization of labor itself and the organization of the workplace of personnel.

V.P. Zinchenko and V.M. Munipov indicate that the following conditions must be met when organizing a workplace:

- sufficient working space for the worker, allowing to carry out all the necessary movements and movements during the operation and maintenance of the equipment;

- natural and artificial lighting is needed to perform operational tasks;

- the permissible level of acoustic noise, vibrations and other factors of the production environment created by the workplace equipment or other sources;

– the presence of the necessary instructions and warning signs that warn of the dangers that may arise during work and indicate the necessary precautions;

- the design of the workplace should ensure the speed, reliability and cost-effectiveness of maintenance and repair in normal and emergency conditions.

B.F. Lomov singled out the following signs of optimal conditions for the course of labor activity:

1. The highest manifestation of the functions of a working system (motor, sensory, etc.), for example, the highest accuracy of discrimination, the highest reaction rate, etc.

2. Long-term preservation of system performance, i.e. endurance. This refers to the functioning at the highest level. Thus, if one determines, for example, the rate at which information is presented to the operator, then it can be found that at a very low or too high rate, the duration of a person's ability to work is relatively short. But you can also find such a rate of information transfer at which a person will work productively for a long time.

3. Optimal working conditions are characterized by the shortest (compared with others) period of workability, i.e., the period of transition of a human system included in the work from a state of rest to a state of high working capacity.

4. The greatest stability of the manifestation of the function, i.e., the least variability of the results of the system. So, a person can reproduce this or that movement most accurately in amplitude or time when working at an optimal pace. With a retreat from this pace, the variability of movements increases.

5. Correspondence of reactions of a working human system to external influences. If the conditions in which the system is located are not optimal, then its reactions may not correspond to the influences (for example, a strong signal causes a weak, i.e. paradoxical reaction, and vice versa). Under optimal conditions, the system exhibits high adaptability and at the same time stability, due to which its reactions at any given moment turn out to be appropriate for the conditions.

6. Under optimal conditions, there is the greatest consistency (for example, synchronism) in the operation of the system components.

3. The specifics of work in extreme situations

The extreme conditions of activity include: monotony, mismatch between the rhythm of sleep and wakefulness, a change in the perception of spatial structure, limited information, loneliness, group isolation, and a threat to life. IN AND. Lebedev gave a detailed description of human activity in extreme situations.

Monotone.

Developing the ideas of I.M. Sechenov, I.P. Pavlov noted that for the active state of the higher part of the cerebral hemispheres, a certain minimum amount of stimuli is needed that goes to the brain through the usual perceiving surfaces of the animal's body.

The influence of altered afferentation, i.e., the flow of external stimuli, on the mental state of people began to be especially clearly revealed with an increase in the range and altitude of flights, as well as with the introduction of automation into aircraft navigation. In flights on bombers, crew members began to complain of general lethargy, weakening of attention, indifference, irritability and drowsiness. Unusual mental states that arose when flying aircraft with the help of autopilots - a feeling of loss of connection with reality and a violation of the perception of space - created the prerequisites for flight accidents and disasters. The appearance of such states in pilots is directly related to monotony.

Studies have shown that every third inhabitant of the city of Norilsk during the examination noted irritability, irascibility, decreased mood, tension and anxiety. In the Far North, neuropsychiatric morbidity is much higher than in the temperate and southern regions of the world. Many doctors at arctic and continental antarctic stations point out that with an increase in the length of stay in expeditionary conditions, general weakness increases in polar explorers, sleep is disturbed, irritability, isolation, depression, and anxiety appear. Some develop neuroses and psychoses. Researchers consider altered afferentation to be one of the main reasons for the development of exhaustion of the nervous system and mental illness, especially during the polar night.

Under the conditions of a submarine, a person's motor activity is limited by a relatively small volume of compartments. During the voyage, divers walk 400 m per day, and sometimes even less. Under normal conditions, people walk an average of 8-10 km. Pilots during the flight are in a forced position associated with the need to control the aircraft. But if pilots and submariners with hypokinesia, i.e., with limited motor activity, constantly work the muscles that ensure the maintenance of the posture in gravitational conditions, then during space flights a person is faced with a fundamentally new type of hypokinesia, due not only to the limitation of the enclosed space of the ship, but also weightlessness. In a state of weightlessness, there is no load on the musculoskeletal system, which ensures the maintenance of a person's posture in gravitational conditions. This leads to a sharp decrease, and sometimes even a cessation of afferentation from the muscular system to the structures of the brain, as evidenced by the bioelectric "silence" of the muscles under weightless conditions.

Discordance between the rhythm of sleep and wakefulness. In the process of development, a person, as it were, “fitted” into the temporal structure determined by the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the sun. Numerous biological experiments have shown that in all living organisms (from unicellular animals and plants to humans inclusive) the daily rhythms of cell division, activity and rest, metabolic processes, performance, etc. under constant conditions (with constant light or in the dark) are very stable, approaching a 24-hour periodicity. Currently, about 300 processes are known in the human body that are subject to daily periodicity.

Under normal conditions, "circadian" (circadian) rhythms are synchronized with geographical and social (working hours of enterprises, cultural and public institutions, etc.) "time sensors", i.e., exogenous (external) rhythms.

Studies have shown that with shifts from 3 to 12 hours, the timing of the restructuring of various functions in accordance with the impact of the changed "time sensors" ranges from 4 to 15 or more days. With frequent transmeridian flights, desynchronization in 75% of aircraft crew members causes neurotic states and the development of neuroses. Most of the electroencephalograms of spacecraft crew members who had shifts in sleep and wakefulness during flights indicated a decrease in the processes of excitation and inhibition.

What is the mechanism of a person's biorhythm - his "biological clock"? How do they work in the body?

The circadian rhythm is the most important for a person. Clocks are wound by regular changes of light and darkness. Light, falling on the retina through the optic nerves, enters the part of the brain called the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is the highest vegetative center that performs complex integration and adaptation of the functions of internal organs and systems into the integral activity of the body. It is associated with one of the most important endocrine glands - the pituitary gland, which regulates the activity of other endocrine glands that produce hormones. So, as a result of this chain, the amount of hormones in the blood fluctuates in the rhythm of "light - dark". These fluctuations determine the high level of body functions during the day and the low level at night.

At night, the lowest body temperature. By morning, it rises and reaches a maximum by 18 hours. This rhythm is an echo of the distant past, when sharp fluctuations in the ambient temperature were assimilated by all living organisms. According to the English neurophysiologist Walter, the appearance of this rhythm, which makes it possible to alternate the stage of activity depending on the temperature fluctuations of the environment, was one of the most important stages in the evolution of the living world.

A person has not experienced these fluctuations for a long time, he created an artificial temperature environment for himself (clothing, housing), but the temperature of his body fluctuates, like a million years ago. And these fluctuations are today no less important for the body. The fact is that temperature determines the rate of biochemical reactions. During the day, the metabolism is most intensive, and this determines the greater activity of a person. The rhythm of body temperature is repeated by indicators of many body systems: this is, first of all, the pulse, blood pressure, respiration.

In synchronization of rhythms, nature has reached amazing perfection: thus, by the time a person wakes up, as if anticipating the body’s need increasing every minute, adrenaline accumulates in the blood, a substance that speeds up the pulse, increases blood pressure, that is, activates the body. By this time, a number of other biologically active substances appear in the blood. Their rising level facilitates awakening and alerts the waking apparatus.

Most people during the day have two peaks of increased efficiency, the so-called double-humped curve. The first rise is observed from 9 to 12-13 hours, the second - between 16 and 18 hours. During the period of maximum activity, the sharpness of our senses also increases: in the morning a person hears better and distinguishes colors better. Proceeding from this, the most difficult and responsible work should be timed to coincide with periods of a natural rise in working capacity, leaving for breaks a time of relatively low working capacity.

Well, what if a person has to work at night? At night, our performance is much lower than during the day, since the functional level of the body is significantly reduced. A particularly unfavorable period is the period from 1 to 3 o'clock in the morning. That is why at this time the number of accidents, industrial injuries and errors increases sharply, fatigue is most pronounced.

British researchers have found that nurses who have been working night shifts for decades continue to have a nighttime decline in physiological function, despite being actively awake at this time. This is due to the stability of the rhythm of physiological functions, as well as the inferiority of daytime sleep.

Daytime sleep differs from nighttime sleep in the ratio of sleep phases and the rhythm of their alternation. However, if a person sleeps during the day in conditions that mimic the night, his body is able to develop a new rhythm of physiological functions that are reverse to the previous one. In this case, a person adapts more easily to night work. Weekly night shift work is less harmful than periodic work, when the body does not have time to adapt to the changing sleep and rest regimen.

Not all people adapt to shift work in the same way - one works better in the morning, others in the evening. People called "larks" wake up early, feel alert and efficient in the morning. In the evening they experience drowsiness and go to bed early. Others - "owls" - fall asleep long after midnight, wake up late and get up with difficulty, since they have the deepest period of sleep in the morning.

The German physiologist Hampp, when examining a large number of people, found that 1/6 of the people belong to the morning type, 1/3 to the evening type, and almost half of the people easily adapt to any mode of work - these are the so-called "arrhythmics". Among mental workers, evening-type persons predominate, while almost half of the persons engaged in physical labor are arrhythmics.

Scientists suggest that when distributing people over work shifts, take into account the individual characteristics of the rhythm of working capacity. The importance of this individual approach to a person is confirmed, for example, by studies conducted at 31 industrial enterprises in West Berlin, which showed that only 19% of 103,435 workers meet the requirements for night shift workers. The suggestion of American researchers to train students at different hours of the day, taking into account the individual characteristics of their biological rhythms, is curious.

In diseases, both physical and mental, biological rhythms can change (for example, some psychotics can sleep for 48 hours).

There is a hypothesis of three biorhythms: the frequency of physical activity (23), emotional (28) and intellectual (33 days). However, this hypothesis did not withstand substantial testing.

Change in perception of spatial structure

Spatial orientation in conditions of being on the surface of the Earth is understood as the ability of a person to assess his position relative to the direction of gravity, as well as relative to various surrounding objects. Both components of this orientation are functionally closely related, although their relationship is ambiguous.

In space flight, one of the essential spatial coordinates ("up - down") disappears, through the prism of which the surrounding space is perceived under terrestrial conditions. In orbital flight, as in airplane flights, the cosmonaut lays out the path of the orbit, linking it to specific areas of the earth's surface. Unlike an orbital flight, the route of an interplanetary ship will pass between two celestial bodies moving in outer space. In interplanetary flight, as in flights to the Moon, astronauts will determine their position using instruments in a completely different coordinate system. With the help of instruments, aircraft and submarines are also controlled. In other words, the perception of space is mediated in these cases by instrumental information, which allows us to speak of a spatial field that has changed for a person.

The main difficulty in the indirect, through instruments, control of the machine is that a person must not only quickly “read” their readings, but also just as quickly, sometimes almost instantly, generalize the data received, mentally represent the relationship between the readings of the instruments and reality. In other words, based on the readings of the instruments, he must create in his mind a subjective, conceptual model of the trajectory of the aircraft in space.

One of the specific features of the activity of pilots and cosmonauts is that each of its subsequent moments is strictly determined by constantly incoming information about the state of the controlled object and the external ("disturbing") environment. Indicative in this regard is the descent of astronauts to the lunar surface. The descent vehicle has no wings and no main rotor. In fact, it is a jet engine and cabin. After separating from the main block of the spacecraft and starting the descent, the astronaut no longer has the opportunity, as a pilot, to go to the second circle in case of an unsuccessful landing approach. Here are some extracts from the report of the American astronaut N. Armstrong, who first carried out this maneuver: “... at a height of a thousand feet, it became clear to us that the Eagle (descent vehicle) wanted to land on the most inappropriate site. From the left porthole, I could clearly see both the crater itself and the platform strewn with boulders ... It seemed to us that the stones were rushing at us at a terrifying speed ... The platform on which our choice fell was the size of a large garden plot ... In the last seconds of the descent, our engine raised a significant amount of lunar dust, which scattered at a very high speed radially, almost parallel to the surface of the moon ... The impression was as if you were landing on the moon through a rapidly rushing fog.

Continuous operator activity under the time limit causes emotional tension along with significant vegetative shifts. So, in a normal level flight on a modern fighter aircraft, for many pilots, the heart rate rises to 120 or more beats per minute, and when switching to supersonic speed and breaking through clouds, it reaches 160 beats with a sharp increase in breathing and an increase in blood pressure to 160 mm Hg . The pulse of astronaut N. Armstrong during the lunar maneuver averaged 156 beats per minute, exceeding the initial value by almost 3 times.

Pilots and cosmonauts, when performing a number of maneuvers, have to work in two control loops. An example is the situation of rendezvous and docking of one ship with another or with an orbital station. Cosmonaut G.T. Beregovoy writes that when performing this maneuver, “you need to look, as they say, both ways. And not figuratively, but in the most literal sense of the word. And behind the instruments on the remote control, and through the windows. He notes that he experienced "great internal stress" at the same time. A similar emotional stress arises in pilots during the maneuver of refueling the aircraft with fuel in the air. They say that the vast expanse of the air ocean, due to the proximity of the tanker aircraft (tanker), suddenly becomes surprisingly cramped.

Working in two control loops, a person, as it were, splits into two. From a physiological point of view, this means that the operator needs to maintain the concentration of the excitatory process in two different functional systems of the brain, reflecting the dynamics of the movement of the observed object (tanker aircraft) and the controlled aircraft, as well as extrapolating (foreseeing) possible events. In itself, this dual operator activity, even with sufficiently developed skills, requires a lot of effort. The dominant foci of irritation located in close proximity create a difficult neuropsychic state, accompanied by significant deviations in various body systems.

As studies have shown, at the time of refueling an aircraft in the air, the heart rate of pilots increases to 160–186 beats, and the number of respiratory movements reaches 35–50 per minute, which is 2–3 times higher than usual. Body temperature rises by 0.7–1.2 degrees. Exceptionally high numbers of ascorbic acid emissions are noted (20 and even 30 times higher than the norm). Similar shifts in vegetative reactions are also observed in cosmonauts during docking operations.

When working under conditions of time limit and shortage, a person’s internal reserves are mobilized, a number of mechanisms are activated to ensure that difficulties arise, and the way of activity is restructured. Due to this, the efficiency of the “man-machine” system can remain at the same level for some time. However, if the flow of information becomes too large and continues for a long time, a "breakdown" is possible. Neurotic "breakdowns" that occur in conditions of continuous activity limited in time, as well as in the case of bifurcation of activity, as shown in his study by the famous Soviet psychoneurologist F.D. Gorbov, are manifested in paroxysms of consciousness and working memory. In some cases, these violations lead to flight accidents and crashes. The founder of cybernetics N. Wiener wrote: "One of the great problems that we will inevitably face in the future is the problem of the relationship between man and machine, the problem of the correct distribution of functions between them." The problem of rational "symbiosis" of man and machine is solved in line with engineering psychology.

According to A.I. Kikolov, for railway and civil aviation dispatchers, who also perceive vehicles moving in space only with the help of devices, during work, the pulse rate increases by an average of 13 beats, the maximum blood pressure increases by 26 mm Hg, the content of blood sugar. Moreover, even the next day after work, the parameters of physiological functions do not return to their original values. During many years of work, these specialists develop a state of emotional imbalance (nervousness increases), sleep is disturbed, pains appear in the region of the heart. Such symptoms in some cases develop into a pronounced neurosis. G. Selye notes that 35% of air traffic controllers suffer from peptic ulcer caused by nervous strain while working with information models.

Information restriction

Under normal conditions, a person constantly produces, transmits and consumes a large amount of information, which he divides into three types: personal, having value for a narrow circle of people, usually related by family or friendship; special, having value within formal social groups; mass, transmitted by the media.

In extreme conditions, the only source of information about loved ones, about events in the world and about the homeland, about achievements in science, etc. is radio. The range of transmission of information to the "board" ranges from periodic radio conversations during flights on airplanes and spacecraft to extremely rare, laconic business telegrams for submarine commanders. Passage of radiograms on

Problems of emotional stability. Factors affecting emotional stability. Emotional stability, dependence on the perfection of activity management. Requirements and methods for increasing the emotional stability of civil aviation pilots.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION LENINGRAD STATE REGIONAL UNIVERSITY IM. A.S. PUSHKIN FACULTY OF PEDAGOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Study of the influence of emotional states on the function of visual perception and metric assessments of perceived objects in relation to the conditions of the lunar relief. Physiological indicators of operators during piloting in simulated states.

Classification of the main forms of labor activity. Determination of the relationship between the mentally functional states and the performance of the individual. The content of the cognitive theory of work stress, determining the causes of its development and ways to overcome it.

Types of functional states of a person. States of activation and levels of wakefulness. Stress is the body's immediate response to a particular stimulus. The specificity of psychological diagnostics in the study of functional states.

Psychological states are the most important component of the human psyche. Consideration of their structure and classification (stress, frustration, affect). Positive and negative emotional states. Industrial mental states, mood.

The emergence of labor psychology. Study of the psychological characteristics of specific types of labor activity.

Description of the dynamics of the state of fatigue in the process of performing activities, its classification: physical and mental, acute and chronic, muscular and sensory. Monotony and mental satiety. The role of controls in improving the reliability of the operator.

Waking up in bright light at night disrupts a person's biological clock for several days. In addition, even a nighttime awakening in a dark room interrupts the flow of biological time, although to a lesser extent.

Application of physiological methods in engineering psychology. Characteristics of human physiological processes. Basic provisions of the theory of self-regulation. Self-control in the activities of the operator. Psychophysiological aspects of the problem of operator reliability.

Features and mechanism of the sensation of changing the weight of one's own body when jumping, flying on an airplane, etc. Subjective experiences of changes in the weight of one's own body, studied in psychiatric practice, their physiological justification.

The state of a person in the process of labor activity. The concept of functional state. The state of physiological rest. Conditions for the productivity of mental labor. Optimal working condition. Psychophysiological components of functional states.

General idea of ​​the psychological characteristics of a human operator. Features of operator activity. Requirements put forward to the professional knowledge and skills of operational personnel. Acceptance by the operator of the decision on the control action.

Studies of biomechanical, vegetative human reactions during reproductive suggestion of various gravitational states. Possibilities of continuous preservation of the suggested "gravitational hyposthesia" in the post-hypnotic period for a long time.

Review of modern works on the study of functional states. The study of the dynamics of performance and fatigue using the state scale, the Landolt test, questionnaires for assessing acute physical and mental fatigue, as well as other methods.

The influence of hypnosis and suggestions on muscle strength, increased efficiency and activation of creative processes. Theories of the mechanism of formation of "refusal" from work. Conditions and results of experiments in the hypnotic and non-hypnotic group of subjects.

Psychological substantiation of a person's readiness for a certain activity and factors influencing it. Professional knowledge, skills and abilities of a practical psychologist, contraindications to this activity. The subject and tasks of studying the psychology of work.

The essence and features of creating emotionally intense situations, their negative impact on human activity. The role of anxiety and depression, the relationship of a person's mental state with his performance, groups of psychological stressors.

Levels of a person's ability to perform a given job. The concept of the performance of a person and his body. External and internal factors that determine the specifics of the work. Evaluation of working capacity according to two groups of indicators. phases of performance.

The main in this disease is asthenic syndrome, which in the dynamics of the disease manifests itself ambiguously, while a number of successive phases of development are detected.

In the psychological literature, various types of human states are considered that have a favorable or negative effect on the course of labor activity. Such states are designated by the concept of the functional state of a person. The very name of this term emphasizes the connection between the state of the human body and the functions that the subject performs in the course of labor activity, and the specificity of the approach to the analysis of human states, which differs from the traditional problems of studying this range of phenomena in general psychology and physiology (studies of emotional states, states of consciousness, psychophysiological states, etc.). The concept of a functional state is introduced to characterize the efficiency side of a person's activity or behavior. This aspect of the consideration of the problem involves, first of all, the solution of the question of the capabilities of a person in a particular state to perform a specific type of activity.

In the psychophysiological and psychological studies of the subject of labor, initially it was about the functional state of the central nervous system, primarily such departments as the reticular formation and the limbic system. The functional state of the nervous system is understood as the background, or level of activation, of the nervous system, on which certain behavioral acts of a person are realized. This indicator is a cumulative integral characteristic of the work of the brain, indicating the general state of many of its structures. The functional state of the central nervous system depends on the nature and characteristics of the activity against which it is carried out, the significance of the motives that prompt the performance of a particular activity, the magnitude of the sensory load, which can reach high values or drop sharply under conditions of sensory deprivation, its initial level as a reflection of previous activity, individual characteristics of the subject's nervous system, and influences that go beyond the body's natural habitat.

The functional state of the central nervous system is judged by behavioral manifestations that correspond to different levels of wakefulness: sleep, drowsiness, calm wakefulness, active wakefulness, tension. Often the level of functional state is identified with the concept of "level of wakefulness". However, these concepts should be distinguished: the level of wakefulness is a characteristic of behavior in terms of its intensity, and the functional state of the central nervous system is the background, or the level of its activity, on which behavioral acts are implemented. The level of activity of the nervous system determines the level of wakefulness. Each level of reticular activity corresponds to a certain type of behavior. According to psychophysiologists, the division of wakefulness levels is based on such quantitative indicators as respiratory rate, the degree of EEG desynchronization, features of the galvanic skin reaction, ECG, etc. The functional state is also influenced by the limbic system of the brain, on which motivational excitation depends. If the reticular formation of the brain is associated with nonspecific activation, then the processes in the limbic system affect the specificity of behavior.

The functional state of the brain is an integral concept, since it reflects the state of the body systems organized to perform certain functions as a whole. Interest in the study of functional states is primarily due to the fact that they are one of the factors of labor activity on which its success depends. In connection with the problem of the relationship between the functional state and activity, the latter is evaluated by a number of objective and subjective indicators. These include the effectiveness of activity, its productivity and the subjective experience of the state. The effectiveness of the performance of activities is measured by the number of necessary labor actions, the accuracy and speed of their implementation. However, equally good results during execution can be achieved at the expense of different energy expenditures of the body, with varying degrees of mobilization of physiological functions. In this regard, the activity is characterized by productivity, which should be distinguished from its effectiveness. The productivity of activity drops markedly with fatigue, as the energy expenditure for performing the same task increases, while the efficiency at the initial stage of fatigue may not yet deteriorate. Efficiency and productivity are independent characteristics of activity. The higher the efficiency and the lower the energy costs of the body, the higher its efficiency, i.e. activity productivity. With the same efficiency of the task, the biological price of energy costs may be different. Long-term persistence of a high level of activation in the period after completion of the task is considered as an indicator of a higher price of adaptation compared to the rapid return of activation to the initial level preceding the task. In other words, individuals who take longer to calm down after arousal pay a greater biological price. This biological measure depends on the state of the individual (for example, on the degree of his fatigue), and also reflects the characteristics of his individual psychophysiological functioning.

In connection with the evaluation of activities not only in terms of efficiency, but also in terms of productivity and the subjective state of a person, the concept of successful activity is used, characterized by a high level of efficiency with low energy and nervous costs, i.e. with high productivity and the emergence of an emotional experience of subjective comfort. The state that accompanies successful activity is considered as a special case of tension, which is characterized by the achievement of an optimal level of activity of the internal and external functions of the body, ensuring high productivity of activity with a positive emotional attitude towards it. The study of not only objective, but also subjective indicators of successful activity is important for optimizing tools, conditions and the labor process.

A special place in the study of functional states is occupied by the problem of factors that determine their level and characteristics. There are six groups of phenomena that regulate functional states.

1. First of all, this motivation - that for which a particular activity is performed. Enthusiasm for work, striving for success, prestige achievement, interest in reward, sense of duty, obligation, help - the presence of all these motives can lead to an extreme interest in the task, and vice versa, their absence generates a formal attitude to the matter. The more intense and significant the motives, the higher the level of the functional state. Consequently, the qualitative originality and the level of the functional state at which a particular activity will be implemented depend on the direction and intensity of motives.

2. Another important regulator of the functional state is content of labor. The labor task itself contains certain requirements for the specifics and level of the functional state. Certain work activities require a certain pace of task completion, automation of actions, responsibility for the result, the use of physical strength or intelligence, etc. Finally, how the task is performed by the subject also has implications for the regulation of functional state.

3. Another group of regulators of the functional state includes sensory load value, which can vary from sensory glut, overload to sensory deprivation with an extreme lack of sensory input. Sensory load refers to both the effects of the sensory environment, mediated by its significance, and those effects that are directly related to the activity performed.

4. Important for the development of the functional state is its initial background level, which preserves a trace from the previous activity of the subject.

5. The specificity and level of the functional state significantly depend on individual characteristics of the subject. For example, monotonous work has a different effect on people with a strong and weak nervous system. Individuals belonging to the strong type show less resistance to monotony and show a decrease in the level of activation of the nervous system earlier than weak ones (N.N. Danilova).

6. In addition, it is possible to single out a group of regulators of the functional state that are not natural: these are pharmacological, electrical and other effects on the body.

Thus, the real level of the functional state is the result of a complex interaction of many factors, the contribution of which is determined by the specific conditions of the individual's existence. At the same time, the analysis of the functional state of a working person in conditions of real activity inevitably goes beyond the framework of only physiological concepts and involves the development of psychological and socio-psychological aspects of this problem. From this point of view, the state of a person is understood as a qualitatively peculiar response of functional systems of different levels to external and internal influences that arise during the performance of an activity that is significant for a person.

Each specific state of a person can be described with the help of diverse manifestations. Objective registration and control are available for changes in the functioning of various physiological systems. Different states are characterized by certain shifts in the course of the main mental processes: perception, attention, memory, thinking and changes in the emotional-volitional sphere. Numerous conditions are accompanied by complexes of distinctly expressed subjective experiences. So, with a strong degree of fatigue, a person experiences a feeling of fatigue, lethargy, impotence. The state of monotony is characterized by boredom, apathy, drowsiness. In states of increased emotional tension, the leading ones are anxiety, nervousness, the experience of danger and fear. A meaningful description of any state is impossible without an analysis of changes in behavioral level. This refers to the assessment of quantitative indicators of the implementation of a certain type of activity, labor productivity, intensity and pace of work, the number of failures and errors. No less attention deserves the analysis of the qualitative features of the process of implementing activities, primarily in terms of motor and speech behavior. Thus, mental and physiological phenomena are reflected in each state in one way or another.

The human condition cannot be characterized as a simple change in the course of individual functions or processes. It is a complex systemic reaction of an individual. By "system" is meant a set of elementary structures or processes interacting with each other, united into a whole by solving a common problem, which cannot be carried out by any of its components. All of the above makes it possible to determine functional state as an integral complex of various characteristics, processes, properties and qualities of a person, which directly or indirectly determine the performance of an activity.

3.2. Types of functional states of a person

The specifics of the condition depends on many different reasons. Because of this, the actual state of a person that arises in each specific situation is always unique. However, among the variety of cases, certain general classes of states are quite clearly distinguished. This is manifested, for example, in the fact that each of us, on a subjective level, easily distinguishes a state of emotional excitement from apathy, a vigorous working state from lethargy and drowsiness. When solving applied problems of recognizing a particular state and managing it, the problem of classification and meaningful description of various types of functional states is of fundamental importance.

The use of the concepts of reliability and cost of activity serves as the basis for creating the most general classification of functional states. Using Criteria reliability the functional state is characterized in terms of a person's ability to perform activities at a given level of accuracy, timeliness, and reliability. By indicators activity prices an assessment of the functional state is given in terms of the degree of exhaustion of the body's forces and, ultimately, its impact on human health. Based on these criteria, the entire set of functional states is divided into two main classes. Permissible functional states, firstly, according to the criterion of reliability, allow to carry out activities whose efficiency is not lower than the permissible level, and secondly, according to the criterion of the cost of activities, they do not adversely affect human health. Inadmissible are such functional states in which the efficiency of activity exceeds the lower limits of a given norm (assessment according to the criterion of reliability) or symptoms of a health disorder appear (assessment according to the criterion of the price of activity).

Excessive stress of the physiological and psychological resources of a person is a potential source of various diseases. On this basis, there are normal And pathological states. Obviously, the latter class is the subject of medical research. However, there is a large group border conditions that can lead to disease. For example, chronic fatigue is a borderline condition in relation to overwork. Labor psychology studies normal and borderline functional states that affect professional activity. From the point of view of the above classification, all boundary conditions are classified as unacceptable. They require the introduction of appropriate preventive measures, in the development of which psychologists should also take a direct part.

Another maximally general classification of functional states is based on the criterion of the adequacy of a person's response to the requirements of the activity being performed. According to this concept, developed by V.I. Medvedev, all human states can be divided into two groups: states of adequate mobilization and states of dynamic mismatch. states adequate mobilization are characterized by full compliance of the degree of tension of the functional capabilities of a person with the requirements imposed by specific conditions. It can be disturbed under the influence of a variety of reasons: duration of activity, increased intensity of load, accumulation of fatigue, etc. Then there are states dynamic mismatch- the reaction in this case is not adequate to the load or the required psychophysiological costs exceed the actual capabilities of the person. Within this classification, almost all states of a working person can be characterized.

The classification of specific types of functional states is based on the idea of ​​the existence of some ordered set, or continuum, states (V.I. Medvedev, E.N. Sokolov). From these positions, a change in a person's state can be represented as a moving point within a continuum of a certain content. So, E.D. Chomsky proposes to order the set of functional states on the scale "sleep - overexcitation", or wakefulness scale. This scale covers a wide range of behavioral responses, which are associated with different levels of organism activation. The degree of activation is determined by the actual capabilities of the organism and the task facing the subject. An increase in activation entails a transition to a higher level on the wakefulness scale. The entire range of behavioral responses on the “sleep-overexcitation” scale is described by nine states: coma, deep sleep, superficial sleep, drowsiness, awakening, passive wakefulness, active wakefulness, emotional arousal, and overexcitation. Of direct interest to the psychology of labor are passive and active wakefulness, arousal and overexcitation, since these states directly affect the efficiency of activity. However, the indirect influence of states of lower activation on labor efficiency, for example, awakening and sleep, requires a more careful attitude to them from the side of labor psychology, especially when studying a subject performing activities under conditions of a long stay at a labor post (cosmonauts, sailors, expedition members, etc.). .P.).

On the basis of duration, there are relatively stable long-term states that accompany activities during the working day or several days, and situational states that occur periodically in the course of work.

On the basis of the intensity of the perceived information flow, states of "sensory hunger" in situations of sensory deprivation and states associated with various information loads are distinguished.

On the basis of stereotyping and complexity of labor actions, states of monotony and intellectual and creative tension are distinguished.

On the basis of the correspondence of the work of functional systems to the changed working conditions, the states of adaptation, stress and distress are distinguished.

3.3. Dynamics of working capacity and state of fatigue

The traditional field of study of functional states in psychology is the study of the dynamics of performance and fatigue.

During the working day, performance may change several times in the direction of decrease or increase. In parallel with performance indicators, in many cases, labor productivity indicators also change. During the working shift, there is a period of working-in (about 0.5 - 1.0 hours long) and a period of high working capacity (about 1 - 2 hours long). At the end of the working day, as well as before the lunch break, there is a decrease in working capacity and labor productivity, which is explained by the development of fatigue. In general, three characteristic processes develop sequentially during the work shift: 1) working in, or entering work; 2) maintaining a high level of performance;

3) fatigue. Quite often this working capacity cycle develops twice during the working day: in the first (before lunch) and in the second (after lunch) half of it.

In the psychophysiological mechanism of workability and fatigue, features of the opposite nature come to the fore. So, if during training there is the formation and refinement of working dynamic stereotypes and corresponding changes in the course of the main functions of various systems, then during the period of fatigue, the destruction of dynamic stereotypes and a change in the course of elementary physiological functions are observed. If during working-in there is an increase in the level of labor productivity, then during fatigue - its decrease.

Most often fatigue is understood as a temporary decrease in performance under the influence of a prolonged exposure to a load. At the same time, the specifics of fatigue significantly depends on the type of load, the time required to restore the initial level of performance and the level of localization of fatigue. There are physical and mental fatigue, acute and chronic; they also consider specific types of fatigue - muscular, sensory, mental, etc.

In the above definition, the main factor in fatigue is a decrease in working capacity, however, in addition to fatigue, states of monotony and mental satiety also affect the decrease in working capacity. If fatigue can be characterized as a natural reaction associated with an increase in tension during prolonged work, then both monotony and mental satiety are the result of the monotony of activities performed in specific conditions (poverty of the external environment, a limited field of work, simple stereotyped actions, etc.) . At the same time, the same direction of change in performance under these conditions does not yet serve as proof of their identity. Differences are manifested both in behavioral terms and in their subjective representation. Monotony is characterized by a person's immersion in a drowsy state, "switching off" from the process of activity. The state of mental satiety is associated with the development of an affective emotional complex and attempts to diversify the usual stereotype of actions performed. The increase in fatigue is accompanied by an increase in specific "mistakes of inattention", a decrease in the accuracy and speed of actions, and symptoms of depletion of the body's reserves. In a state of monotony or mental satiety, depletion of the body's reserves is not observed, on the contrary, an insufficient or one-sided use of reserves leads to an increase in these states. For the state of monotony, the main type of changes is characterized by a general decrease in the activity of the processes providing activity. The states of fatigue, on the contrary, are characterized by the dissociation of these processes as tension increases, which is manifested in the growth of the mismatch between individual indicators.

On the physiological side, the development of fatigue indicates the depletion of the internal reserves of the body and the transition to less beneficial ways of functioning of the systems: maintaining the minute volume of blood flow is carried out by increasing the heart rate instead of increasing the stroke volume; motor reactions are realized by a large number of functional muscle units when the force of contractions of individual muscle fibers is weakened, etc. This is expressed in violations of the stability of vegetative functions, a decrease in the strength and speed of muscle contraction, discoordination in the work of regulatory formations, difficulties in the development and inhibition of conditioned reflexes, as a result of which and the pace of work slows down, accuracy, rhythm and coordination of movements are violated.

As fatigue grows, significant changes are observed in the course of various mental processes. The state of fatigue is characterized by a noticeable decrease in sensory sensitivity in various modalities, along with an increase in its inertia. This is manifested in an increase in the absolute and differential sensitivity thresholds, a decrease in the critical flicker fusion frequency, and an increase in the brightness and duration of successive images. Often, with fatigue, the speed of response decreases, i.e. the time of a simple sensorimotor reaction and a choice reaction increases. However, there may be an increase in the speed of responses, accompanied by an increase in the number of errors. Fatigue leads to the disintegration of the performance of complex motor skills by the type of uncoordinated implementation of individual motor stereotypes.

The most pronounced and significant signs of fatigue are impaired attention: the amount of attention narrows, the functions of switching and distribution of attention suffer, and its arbitrariness decreases. On the part of the processes that ensure the memorization and preservation of information, fatigue primarily leads to difficulties in retrieving information stored in long-term memory. The decrease in short-term memory indicators is associated with the deterioration of information retention in the short-term storage system and semantic coding operations. The efficiency of the thinking process is significantly reduced due to the predominance of stereotyped ways of solving problems in situations requiring new decisions. The conscious control of the processes of goal formation in problem situations is violated or reduced, the purposefulness of intellectual acts is violated.

As fatigue develops, the motives of activity are transformed. If an adequate "business" motivation is preserved in the early stages, then the motives for terminating the activity or leaving it become predominant. With continued work, this leads to the formation of negative emotional reactions.

The described symptom complex of fatigue is represented by a variety of subjective phenomena, familiar to everyone as fatigue complex. The experience of fatigue is important from the point of view of ensuring somatic and psychological health: it is a signal to search for external or internal reserves to continue activities or to stop them.

Thus, at the psychological level, fatigue can be characterized as a cognitive-emotional-personality syndrome. In its development, several stages are distinguished, the content and adaptive significance of which are revealed in the analysis of the general laws of the dynamics of working capacity in the process of a long-term activity.

The traditional way to identify performance stages is to analyze the relationship between the effectiveness of an activity and the time it takes to complete it. The dynamics of working capacity with this approach is characterized only on the basis of external indicators of labor productivity: deterioration in work results indicates a decrease in working capacity, improvement indicates an increase in working capacity. The use of the performance criterion to determine the dynamics of working capacity is typical for the object paradigm in the research of labor psychology, in contrast to which the subjective approach also takes into account internal subjective factors that affect the dynamics of working capacity. However, with all the variety of approaches to describing the dynamics of working capacity, one can single out the most common, most typical stages, such as the stage of development, the stage of optimal performance, and fatigue. Their duration, alternation and severity are determined by the influence of many factors and can vary up to the complete loss of some of them. For example, if the subject has a detailed structure of positive motives for professional activity, the period of development is very short, the period of optimal performance is long, and the stage of fatigue may be absent altogether.

The appearance of symptoms of fatigue indicates the insufficiency of the attracted compensatory funds to maintain the efficiency of activity at a given level (in terms of quantitative and qualitative indicators). Restoring the optimal level of performance involves stopping the activity that caused fatigue for a certain period of time, which must necessarily include elements of both passive and active recreation. In cases where the duration or usefulness of periods of rest is insufficient, there is an accumulation, or cumulation, of fatigue.

The first symptoms of chronic fatigue are a variety of subjective sensations - a feeling of constant fatigue, increased fatigue, drowsiness, lethargy, etc., objective signs in the initial stages of its development are not very pronounced. However, since the task of diagnosing chronic fatigue is especially important in early stages, one should look for reliable indicators of its occurrence. Along with the analysis of subjective symptoms, it is informative to analyze the ratios in the duration of individual stages of performance, mainly the stages of development and optimal performance.

The fatigue of various types of labor is determined by the following factors: the cost of physical effort; tension of attention; pace of work; working position; monotony of work; temperature and humidity of the environment; dust and air pollution; noise vibration, rotation and shocks; lighting. Each factor and its gradations have conditional meters (scores), which can be expressed as a percentage of the time required for rest when working under the influence of this factor. When assessing the total impact on the body of several factors, the corresponding scores and percentages can be added arithmetically or geometrically (by adding squares and extracting the square root from the sum).

The classification of work according to the severity of physical labor or the intensity of mental labor is currently based on the gradation of the degree of fatigue according to the type of performance curve. The types of labor characterized by such a configuration of the working capacity curve, when the development proceeds quickly, stable working capacity is long and there is a short decrease in working capacity in the last hour or half an hour of work, belong to the I degree of fatigue and to the I category of severity and tension. Violation of power relations in nervous activity, loss of fluency in the dynamics of working capacity during the period of working out, early onset of fatigue, and a decrease in labor productivity characterize the II degree of fatigue and correspond to the II category of labor severity and intensity. To the third degree of fatigue and, accordingly, to the third category of the severity and intensity of labor, it is proposed to include labor actions characterized by a significant violation of the coordination function of the central nervous system due to the accumulation of traces of fatigue. This state acquires a stagnant character and turns into overwork, when the usual working movements can be disturbed (the working dynamic stereotype is destroyed). At the same time, the working capacity curve changes sharply, the frequency and ratio of its segments are lost, a stable state of working capacity is not observed, labor productivity decreases, and the number of errors increases.

The cause of fatigue is rooted in changes in the functional state of the nerve centers, in which, during work, along with the elementary processes observed in cells and tissues, more complex processes take place, reflecting the ability of nerve cells to summarize the trace processes remaining after each reaction characteristic of them. In the teachings of N.E. Vvedensky about parabiosis and A.A. Ukhtomsky about the assimilation of rhythm, certain effects of the summation of successive trace processes were established. In the first phase of exposure to repeatedly repeated stimuli, a change in the functional state of nerve cells occurs, which is characterized by an increase in the rates of development and completion of excitation, i.e. increase in functional mobility (lability) or assimilation of the rhythm. In the second phase, the continued exposure to stimuli and the corresponding process of excitation summation lead to the opposite result - a decrease in lability and the development of a state that approaches parabiosis with further exposure.

It would be wrong to think that a decrease in the functional mobility of the nervous system immediately leads to a decrease in labor productivity. The decrease in labor productivity occurs somewhat later, for some time work continues with the same production indicators, despite the fact that physiological indicators have already begun to deteriorate. In this case, the work continues under the conditions required by the production due to the involvement of additional factors of a socio-psychological order (for example, awareness of responsibility for the assigned work).

The development of protective inhibition in the process of labor activity indicates that under production conditions, a decrease in working capacity due to fatigue is caused not directly by the depletion of energy reserves in nerve cells, not by clogging them with decay products, but by the violation of the rhythm of activity and the working dynamic stereotype that precede these processes. In the general case, these reversible functional disorders are caused by the summation of traces of excitation remaining after each working action. In each particular case of a separate production work, the summation of traces of excitation has its own characteristics, depending on the nature of the work performed and the working conditions in a particular area of ​​production. Specific psychophysiological mechanisms of summation of trace processes in the nervous system, leading to fatigue, are different and depend on working conditions.

If the development of fatigue should be considered a natural reaction of the body, which has an adaptive character and performs a number of useful functions, then its excessive development in any form is an undesirable phenomenon. In accordance with this, when solving applied problems, different goals should be set. On the one hand, it is necessary to maximize the time of optimal performance and delay the appearance of the first signs of fatigue, although the state of fatigue itself is quite acceptable in the last hours of work. On the other hand, in order to prevent the effects of the accumulation of fatigue, it is desirable to ensure full recovery of strength by the beginning of the next working day.

In each specific type of labor, it is necessary to apply such health-improving measures that could best correspond to the psychophysiological processes developing during this type of labor activity, in particular, characteristic of this type of labor. physiological mechanism fatigue. The most effective means of preventing fatigue during work in production are means that normalize the active labor activity of a person. A decrease in the density of working time, the presence of forced breaks throughout the working day not only do not delay the onset and development of fatigue, but can both accelerate and deepen it. The exclusion of random interruptions in work, downtime and assault, the rhythmization of labor processes are important conditions for maintaining a high level of efficiency. Against the background of the normal course of production processes, one of the important physiological measures that resist fatigue is the correct mode of work and rest. In the shift regime of work and rest, a physiologically and psychologically justified alternation of periods of work and breaks for rest and meals should be provided.

Breaks vary in their meaning and duration. In the middle of the working day, a lunch break is usually appointed, the duration of which should be 1 hour or 50 minutes (in some cases, breaks of a shorter duration are possible, which should be compensated by other measures to facilitate and improve labor). In the first (before lunch) half of the working day and in the second (afternoon) at the expense of working time, additional breaks for rest are assigned, depending on the characteristics of this type of work, from 5 to 15 minutes (rarely more than 15 minutes). The location of additional breaks during the working day, their number and content (passive or active rest) are determined on the basis of data from a physiological and psychological study of the dynamics of working capacity. In the intervals between working operations (as well as between working elements and movements), short micropauses are made lasting from a few seconds to 2-3 minutes.

By appropriately changing the number, duration, location during the shift and the content of additional breaks, a specialist in the field of physiology and psychology of labor has the opportunity to create such a regime of work and rest at a particular site of the enterprise that will ensure the achievement of a high and stable level of working capacity, labor productivity and optimal adaptation physiological and mental functions to the current work activity.

The term "tension" is widely used in labor psychology, but its meaning in the context of different works is far from unambiguous. It is used both to characterize the process of labor activity itself, and to designate specific conditions that arise in the course of its implementation. It also characterizes one of the phases of the development of fatigue associated with maintaining a high level of performance as a result of volitional effort. Often this term denotes a range of human states that arise in complicated conditions of activity.

The degree of intensity of activity can be determined by the structure of the labor process, in particular the content of the workload, its intensity, saturation of activity, etc. In this sense, tension is interpreted from the point of view of the requirements that a particular type of labor places on a person. On the other hand, the intensity of activity can be characterized by psychophysiological costs (price of activity) necessary to achieve the labor goal. In this case, tension is understood as the amount of effort applied by a person to solve the problem.

Within this general concept, two main classes of states of tension are distinguished: specific tension, which determines the dynamics and intensity of the psychophysiological processes that underlie the performance of specific labor skills, and nonspecific, which characterizes the general psychophysiological resources of a person and generally ensures the level of performance. Nonspecific tension is understood as a spectrum of activity states of the body, characterized by an increased level of systems functioning compared to the state of rest; it accompanies any purposeful activity. Specific tension can mean, for example, a number of human states determined by factors of intensity and information structure of the load. Such tension is often experienced by operators in the “man-machine” system (in a broader sense, “man-machine”). It can be defined as mental tension, which characterizes the characteristics of behavior in stressful situations. This type of tension is typical for professions that require the employee to make a quick decision, operational thinking, and high-quality processing of a large amount of information.

According to the type of influence on the efficiency of activity, operational and emotional tension are distinguished. The first is characterized by the predominance of procedural motives of activity, which has a mobilizing effect on the individual and helps to maintain a high level of efficiency. The development of emotional tension, observed when an adequate motivational structure is broken in complicated conditions, leads to disorganization of activity. Emotional tension also arises when there is a pronounced discrepancy between the motivational structures of several subjects of labor, the interaction of which is necessary to achieve the goal. Such situations of inconsistency and interpersonal conflict often occur in all professions of the "man-man" type. In particular, teachers, doctors, lawyers, psychologists, etc. often experience emotional tension.

When using the criterion of optimal compliance of the efforts expended by a person with the requirements of activity, productive and unproductive tensions are distinguished. The first allows you to achieve the goals of the activity in an optimal way for the subject, the second is observed when the employee's efforts do not correspond to the subjective costs necessary to achieve the goal. In this case, unproductive tension can be either less than necessary, or significantly exceed it.

3.5. Stress

The concept of stress originally arose in physiology to denote a nonspecific generalized reaction of the body - the "general adaptation syndrome" (G. Selye, 1936) in response to any adverse effect. The content of this reaction was described primarily from the side of typical neurohumoral shifts that provide protective energy mobilization of the body: the stressor excites the hypothalamus, a substance is produced that gives the signal to the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone into the blood, under its influence the outer cortical part of the adrenal glands secretes corticoids, which leads to wrinkling of the thymus gland , atrophy of the lymph nodes, inhibition of inflammatory reactions and the production of sugar as an easily accessible source of energy. Later, the concept of stress was expanded and began to be used to characterize the characteristics of the individual's states in extreme conditions at the physiological, psychological and behavioral levels.

To understand the nature of these states, the characteristics of stress on the part of the extreme factors that cause it, or stressors, are of particular importance. The list of stressors is very diverse: from simple physical and chemical stimuli (temperature, noise, gas composition of the atmosphere, toxic substances, etc.) to complex psychological and socio-psychological factors (risk, danger, lack of time, novelty and unexpectedness of the situation, increased significance of activity and etc.). Depending on the type of stressor and the mechanism of its action, different types of stress are distinguished. The most general classification was proposed by R. Lazarus, who singled out physiological and psychological stress.

physiological stress is a direct response of the body to the impact of a uniquely defined stimulus, usually of a physicochemical nature. The states corresponding to this type are characterized mainly by pronounced physiological changes (signs of vegetative and neurohumoral activation) and subjective sensations of physical discomfort accompanying them. For practical studies of labor activity, especially those carried out in difficult or unusual environmental conditions, knowledge of specific forms of manifestation of particular species is of great importance. physiological stress- noise, temperature, vibration, etc.

Psychological stress characterized by the inclusion of a complex hierarchy of mental processes that mediate the influence of a stressor or a stressful situation on the human body. Physiological manifestations are similar to those described above, while the range of psychological and behavioral manifestations is much more diverse. The most typical of them are changes in the course of various mental processes (perception, attention, memory, thinking), in emotional reactions, changes in the motivational structure of activity, disturbances in motor and speech behavior up to its complete disorganization. Psychological stress tends to have a negative effect on performance. In this case, different in quality (for example, impulsive, inhibitory, generalized) and (or) severity (for example, anxiety reactions of varying degrees) types of response are distinguished.

One of the most interesting aspects of the study of stress is the analysis of the process of response to extreme exposure. Its fundamental mechanism is reflected in the sequence of the main stages in the development of the general adaptation syndrome described by G. Selye. They singled out the initial stage of "anxiety", which immediately follows the extreme impact and is expressed in a sharp drop in the body's resistance; the stage of "resistance", characterized by the actualization of adaptive capabilities; the stage of "exhaustion", which corresponds to a persistent decrease in body reserves.

A person's resistance to the occurrence of various forms of stress reactions is determined primarily by individual psychological characteristics and the motivational orientation of the individual. It should be noted that extreme impact does not always have a negative impact on the efficiency of the activities performed. Otherwise, it would be impossible to successfully overcome the difficulties that arise when conditions become more complicated. Nevertheless, working in a stressful situation necessarily leads to additional mobilization of internal resources, which may have adverse long-term consequences. Typical diseases of "stress etiology", such as cardiovascular pathologies, stomach ulcers, psychosomatic disorders, neuroses, depressive states, are very typical for various modern types of production and management activities.

However, not all stress is harmful, moreover, G. Selye believed that "even in a state of relaxation, a sleeping person experiences some stress." To denote dangerous stress, he introduced the concept of distress, which is associated with the gradual depletion of the body's forces. Along with Selye's formulation in the 1950s - 1960s. many researchers have defined stress as a state of disturbance of homeostatic balance, or the sum of reactions aimed at restoring this balance; the state of an organism that perceives a threat to its well-being (or integrity) and directs all energy to its defense; any condition caused by a disruption in the normal functioning of the body.

The same stressors can have a mobilizing effect on behavior and activity, or they can lead to a complete disorganization of activity. Insufficient productivity of activity at a low level of stress, some researchers tend to consider as a result of the low involvement of adaptive reserves in the processes that carry it out. A decrease in the productivity of activities when a critical level of stress is exceeded, i.e. the transition of stress into distress is explained by the fact that emotional stress “narrows” attention. At the same time, initially in the mechanisms of human behavior, “the rejection of less significant and“ ballast signals ”occurs, which helps to maintain the efficiency of activity. Then, further narrowing of attention beyond the critical threshold leads to the loss of significant signals and to a decrease in the efficiency of both attention and activity in general” (L.M. Abolin). Apparently, a similar mechanism of influence of neuropsychic stress on activity is universal in various forms of stressful conditions: frustration, affect, depression, etc.

In the process of the emergence and course of stress in labor activity, a person is involved not only physiological systems, but also various mental functions. In this regard, four subsyndromes of stress are distinguished (L.A. Kitaev-Smyk): 1) cognitive, manifested in the form of changes in the perception and awareness of information coming to a person in an extreme situation; changes in his ideas about the external and internal spatial environment, the direction of his thinking, etc.; 2) emotional-behavioral, which consists in emotional-sensory reactions to extreme, critical conditions, situations, etc.; 3) socio-psychological, revealed in changes in the communication of people in stressful situations; these changes can manifest themselves in the form of socially positive tendencies: in rallying people, increasing mutual assistance, in a tendency to support the leader, follow him, etc. (with stress, socially negative forms of communication can also develop: self-isolation, a tendency to confront people around, etc.); 4) vegetative, manifested in the occurrence of either total or local physiological stress reactions, which have an adaptive essence, but can become the basis for the development of so-called "stress diseases".

Extreme situations are divided into short-term, when response programs are updated, which are always “ready” in a person, and long-term, which require an adaptive restructuring of a person’s functional systems, sometimes subjectively extremely unpleasant, and sometimes unfavorable for his health. Short-term stress is a rapid expenditure of "surface" adaptive reserves and, along with this, the beginning of the mobilization of "deep" reserves. Long-term stress is the gradual mobilization and expenditure of both "superficial" and "deep" adaptive reserves. The course of long-term stress can be latent; be reflected in the change in adaptation indicators, which can be recorded only by special methods. Maximum tolerated long-term stressors cause severe symptoms of stress. Adaptation to such factors can be provided that the human body has time, by mobilizing "deep" adaptive reserves, to "adjust" to the level of long-term extreme environmental requirements. The symptomatology of prolonged stress resembles the initial general symptoms of somatic, and sometimes mental, disease states. Such stress can turn into illness. The cause of long-term stress can be a repetitive extreme factor. In this situation, the processes of adaptation and readaptation alternately “turn on”. Their manifestations may seem merged.

With a long stay in extreme conditions, a complex picture of changes in the physiological, psychological and socio-psychological characteristics of a person arises. The variety of manifestations of prolonged stress, as well as the difficulties of organizing experiments with many days, many months, etc. human stay in extreme conditions are the main reasons for its insufficient study. A systematic experimental study of adaptation under conditions of prolonged stress was initiated in connection with preparations for long-term space flights. Research was originally conducted to determine the limits of human tolerance of certain adverse conditions. At the same time, the attention of the experimenters was drawn to physiological and psychophysiological indicators: when the physiological limits of human tolerance to various extreme physical factors were basically determined, the subject of the study was the mental states and human performance in extreme conditions. An important direction in the study of long-term stress was its socio-psychological research, which is necessary, in particular, to solve problems of group compatibility in extreme situations, problems of managing mass psychological processes, etc.

Physiological and psychophysiological studies of long-term stress made it possible to single out three periods of adaptation to stable stressful influences in the first stage of stress. The first period represents the activation of adaptive forms of response due to the mobilization of mainly “surface” reserves. This period is largely identical to the body's response to short-term exposure. Its duration at the maximum subjectively tolerated extremeness of the stressor is calculated in minutes, hours. The first period of stress in most people is characterized by sthenic emotions and increased efficiency.

If the adaptive protective activity mobilized “on alarm” does not stop the stressful impact, the existing “programs” in the body for restructuring the “functional systemic” existing in non-extreme conditions and becoming its new form, adequate to the extreme requirements of the environment, begin to operate. This restructuring is considered as the second period in the first stage of stress development. This period is often characterized by a painful state of a person with a decrease in working capacity, however, high motivation in this period of stress can maintain a fairly high working capacity of a person, despite severe clinical symptoms. Moreover, psychological factors (motivation, attitude, etc.) can, due to temporary "overmobilization" of reserves, in particular the pituitary-adrenal system, stop the adverse manifestations of this period. "Overmobilization" can be done painlessly in healthy, non-overworked people. In case of overwork, diseases (including compensated or implicit ones), as well as at an elderly age, “overmobilization” under stress due to psychological urges can exacerbate an existing latent disease, as well as cause other stress diseases (vascular, inflammatory and mental).

Noteworthy is the similar total duration of the first two periods of stress under various extreme conditions. So, if the situations approached the maximum tolerable for a person, then the total duration of these periods under completely different stressful conditions averaged about 11 days. The authors of studies of human life in extremely unfavorable conditions describe a period of unstable adaptation to these conditions, which can be considered as the third period of the first stage of stress development. Its duration varies widely (up to 20 - 60 days).

G. Selye in his later studies separately emphasized the special role of cognitive processes and personal factors in the genesis of stress. This point of view is confirmed by the fact that universal mental stressors, as well as universal situations that cause stress, do not exist. Each person reacts to the intensity of stress and its specificity in different ways. What is severe stress for one is a normal state for another, providing an optimal background for the successful completion of professional activities.

F.B. Berezin emphasizes that the degree of impact of mental stress on a person is largely due to his adaptive capabilities, which are largely determined by the specifics and content of individual experience, the significance for the individual of violations of habitual stereotypes, as well as the stability of psychophysiological systems. The researcher identifies two main causes of mental stress: insufficient structure of the situation, which contributes to the formation of a subjective sense of threat, and the ineffectiveness of a person's adaptive reactions (violation of his adaptive mechanisms).

According to the degree of activity of counteracting stress, there are three main groups adaptive psychological mechanisms(V.A. Tashlykov). The first group is close to the so-called coping mechanisms, i.e. attempts to independently cope with situations that pose a psychological threat to the individual. Compensatory psychological tricks overcompensation, substitution, "flight to work" can be seen as independent attempts to cope with difficulties by switching to other tasks.

The second group combines psychological defense mechanisms of the type of repression, denial, projection, characterized by automation. The mechanisms of repression lead to the fact that suppressed, affectively highly charged experiences can cause disorganization of vegeto-somatic processes, the appearance of psychosomatic disorders. The mechanism of intellectualization is based on the isolation of the affective component of experience from its intellectual content and is usually observed in people who prefer, first of all, a logical approach to everything that happens to them, and who are afraid of the uncontrollable, in their opinion, influences of emotional reactions.

The third group consists of such defense mechanisms as rationalization, "escape to the disease", fantasizing, reflecting the passive nature of attempts to cope with psychological stress with an indefinite position regarding thoughts, feelings, and motives that are unacceptable to the "I". Rationalization consists in justifying one's own failure at work. “Escape to illness” is one of the most unconstructive ways of adaptation, entailing aggravation of helplessness, avoidance of responsibility, loss of independence. The mechanism of fantasizing takes a person away from reality into the world of dreams.

Of particular importance in the activation of the adaptation process in labor is anxiety. Anxiety is considered as a feeling of an indefinite threat (the nature or time of occurrence of which cannot be predicted), as a feeling of diffuse fear and anxious expectation, indefinite anxiety. Anxiety can serve as a signal of a violation of the mental adaptation of the subject of labor. The functions of anxiety in the general adaptation process are different and even in some cases antagonistic. On the one hand, anxiety can activate a person, on the other hand, it can also have a destructive effect, change a person's behavior, making him less adaptive. In this case, the determining role is given to personal factors.

Distinguish between anxiety as a personality trait that determines readiness for anxious reactions, and actual anxiety, which is part of the structure of the mental state at a given particular moment (Yu.L. Khanin). Analyzing various variants of anxiety, F.B. Berezin described the development of this state (the so-called alarm series), when, in order of increasing severity, a person goes through the following steps: 1) a feeling of internal tension; 2) hypersthesia reactions; 3) actual anxiety; 4) fear; 5) a sense of the inevitability of an impending catastrophe; 6) anxiously timid excitement.

Thus, stress and its first stage - anxiety - have a significant impact on the activation of the subject in the labor process, the dynamics of his performance. One of the characteristic features of modern professions is the development of stress into distress, which negatively affects labor process. Not only medical, but also various negative socio-economic consequences of distress, such as job dissatisfaction, reduced productivity, accidents, absenteeism, employee turnover, emphasize the need to study the state of psychological stress and distress. Optimization of any type of work involves the use of a set of preventive measures aimed at eliminating or limiting the causes of severe stress to the maximum.

3.6. Specific functional states in psychological and pedagogical activity

In the process of performing any work, people tend to experience physical and neuropsychic stress. Their value can be different in different types of activities. With small loads that act constantly, or one-time significant loads, natural regulatory mechanisms are activated, and the body copes with the consequences of these loads itself, without the conscious participation of a person. For example, after heavy mental or physical work, a person may oversleep more than usual and wake up rested. In other cases, when the load is not only significant, but also prolonged, it is important to consciously use various techniques and methods that help the body recover.

As the results of numerous studies show, the work of teachers, psychologists, specialists of various social services causes significant neuropsychic stress. The reasons for this include hypodynamia, increased stress on the visual, auditory and vocal apparatus, psychological and organizational difficulties, such as responsibility for the fate of another person, the need to be “in shape” all the time, the lack of emotional discharge, a large number of contacts during the working day, etc. With such work, day after day, the level of tension can accumulate. Possible manifestations of this may be agitation, irritability, anxiety, muscle tension, clamps in various parts of the body, increased breathing, palpitations, increased fatigue. When a certain level of tension is reached, the body begins to try to protect itself. Outwardly, this manifests itself in an unconscious or conscious desire to reduce or formalize the time of interaction with students and clients. A prolonged state of tension can lead to professional burnout (for more details, see 2.5). The experience of practical psychologists shows that an effective means of preventing tension, preventing the symptom of professional burnout is the use of self-regulation methods.

There are natural ways of regulating the body and self-regulation (S.V. Filina). The natural ways of regulating the body include long sleep, delicious food, communication with nature and animals, a bath, massage, movement, dancing, music and much more. There are also individual natural ways of regulation: laughter, smile, humor; reflections on the good, pleasant; various movements such as sipping, muscle relaxation; observation of the landscape outside the window; looking at flowers in a room, photographs, and other things that are pleasant for a person; mental appeal to higher powers (god, universe, great idea); inhalation of fresh air; poetry reading; drawing, etc.

Self-regulation is the management of one's emotional state, achieved by a person's influence on himself with the help of words, mental images, control of muscle tone and breathing. As a result of self-regulation, there are three main effects - calming, restoring and activating. Timely self-regulation acts as a kind of psycho-hygienic means that prevents the accumulation of residual effects of overstrain, contributes to the completeness of restoration of strength, normalizes the emotional background of activity, and also enhances the mobilization of body resources.

Breath control is effective remedy influence on muscle tone and those parts of the brain that are responsible for the emotional state of a person. Slow and deep breathing (with the participation of the abdominal muscles) lowers the excitability of the nerve centers, promotes muscle relaxation (relaxation). Frequent (thoracic) breathing, on the contrary, provides a high level of body activity, maintains neuropsychic tension.

Methods related to the control of muscle tone also refer to methods of voluntary self-regulation. Under the influence of mental stress, muscle clamps and tension arise. The ability to relax them allows you to relieve neuropsychic tension, quickly restore strength. You can work with the following muscle groups: face (forehead, eyelids, lips, teeth); neck, shoulders; chest; thighs and abdomen; hands; the bottom of the legs.

Methods associated with the influence of the word involve the conscious mechanism of self-hypnosis, while there is a direct impact on the psycho-physiological functions of the body. Self-hypnosis formulations are built in the form of simple and short statements with a positive orientation (without the “not” particle). Verbal self-hypnosis can be carried out in the following forms: a) self-order - a short, abrupt order made to oneself; it helps to restrain emotions, behave with dignity, comply with the requirements of ethics and the rules of working with clients; b) self-programming, when it is useful to remember your successes in a similar situation (past successes tell a person about his capabilities, hidden reserves in the spiritual, intellectual, volitional spheres and instill confidence in his abilities); c) self-approval (self-encouragement).

The ways in which images are used are associated with an active influence on the central nervous system of representations and sensory images. We do not remember many positive sensations, observations, impressions, but if we awaken the memories and images associated with them, we can experience them again and even strengthen them. And if with a word we mainly influence the consciousness, then images and imagination give us access to powerful subconscious reserves of the psyche. One of the methods widely used in modern psychological practice, neurolinguistic programming, is based on active work with images.

In the work on the prevention of neuropsychic tension among teachers, psychologists and other educators, the primary role should be given to the development and strengthening of a positive perception of life, a positive "I-concept", faith in people, confidence in the success of the business that one has undertaken.

3.7. Principles and methods of diagnostics and correction of functional states

The field of research of the functional states of a working person for experimental psychology is traditional. Each specific state of a person can be described with the help of diverse manifestations. Objective registration and control available changes in the functioning of various physiological systems. The most significant for identifying the specifics of a particular condition are indicators of the activity of various parts of the central nervous system, cardiovascular, respiratory, motor, endocrine systems, etc. Different states are characterized by certain shifts in the course of basic mental processes: perception, attention, memory, thinking and changes in the emotional-volitional sphere, assessed using various psychometric procedures. Numerous conditions are accompanied by complexes of distinctly expressed subjective experiences. For example, with a strong degree of fatigue, a person experiences a feeling of fatigue, lethargy, impotence. The state of monotony is characterized by boredom, apathy, drowsiness. In states of increased emotional tension, the leading one is a feeling of anxiety, nervousness, experiencing danger and fear. A meaningful description of any state is impossible without an analysis of changes in behavioral level. This refers to the assessment of quantitative indicators of the implementation of a certain type of activity: labor productivity, intensity and pace of work, the number of failures and errors. No less attention deserves the analysis of the qualitative features of the process of implementing activities, primarily in terms of motor and speech behavior.

Any state of a person arises in the process of activity. In its content, it is the result of the interaction of various elementary structures. This is manifested primarily in the fact that each state is characterized not so much by stable changes in certain quantitative indicators as by the type of relationships between them and regular trends in their dynamics. For example, certain types of fatigue are characterized by very definite shifts in the activity of the cardiovascular system. When exposed to intense physical activity the energy needs of the body increase, which necessarily leads to an increase in the speed and volume of blood flow. As fatigue develops, first of all, there is a decrease in the strength of heart contractions and, accordingly, a decrease in systolic blood volume. The parameters of the speed and volume of blood flow necessary for the performance of work can be maintained for some time due to an increase in the heart rate and changes in vascular tone, therefore, according to A.B. Leonov, it is not the symptoms of increased heart rate, increased blood pressure and changes in systolic or minute blood volume in their direct quantitative expression that are diagnostically significant for assessing the development of fatigue, but the direction and magnitude of the shifts in these indicators and the relationship between them.

The qualitative heterogeneity of different states is primarily due to differences in the underlying causes that cause them. So, for states of fatigue, the factors of the duration of the impact of the load, the type of load, its organization in time are of paramount importance (A.B. Leonova). The development of states of emotional tension is determined mainly by the increased significance of the activity performed, its responsibility, complexity, the degree of preparedness of a person and other socio-psychological factors (A.B. Leonova).

The specificity of the influence of the totality of the main causes is mediated by the individual characteristics of a person. In addition, the formation of a new state is largely determined by the characteristics of the previous state in time and sets the possible directions for its development. For example, directly against the background of the initial state of monotony, with a change in the nature of activity, a state of optimal performance can be formed (A.B. Leonova).

Modern technology and the existence of a fairly wide range of diagnostic techniques make it possible to simultaneously record the dynamics of several (sometimes up to several dozen) different parameters. However, even the most complete representation of the measurable quantitative characteristics variety of processes does not facilitate the solution of the problem of identification of the investigated functional state. Moreover, with a simple enumeration of the shifts of individual parameters, the multidirectionality of the observed changes, which is difficult to interpret, is surprising. According to A.B. Leonova, obtaining the necessary information about the functional state involves not so much the maximum expansion of the range of recorded parameters as the search for ways to identify the type of relationship between the elements of the system (characterized by individual parameters) and present them in the form of generalized indicators. At the same time, we are not talking about a simple summation of data on the dynamics of individual, albeit very important, parameters - symptoms. The emphasis is on the need to obtain a holistic description of the state under study in the form of a specific syndrome, taking into account the causes that caused its development.

Different types of labor activity impose rather stringent requirements on a person in terms of their content and specific conditions for implementation. At the same time, the degree of load falling on different parts of the system that ensures the performance of activities is far from being the same. “Since the performance of the system as a whole is determined by the state of those links that experience the greatest load or bear the greatest responsibility for the success of the work, insofar as the appropriate methods for studying the performance should be addressed primarily to these links” (A.B. Leonova).

Features of specific types of labor leave an indelible imprint on the nature of the formed response - the human condition. The consequence of this is the qualitative heterogeneity of manifestations even within the same class of functional states characteristic of different forms of professional activity. Therefore, the main criterion for assessing a change in state is the efficiency of activity, which is not limited to external manifestations - the effectiveness of work, expressed in terms of labor productivity, quality and speed of work, the number of errors, failures, etc. change significantly. In a broad sense, efficiency characterizes “the adaptability of the system to achieve the task assigned to it” (A.B. Leonova).

The degree of adequacy of the response to the requirements, determined by the content of the activity and the conditions for its implementation, is also one of the performance indicators (A.B. Leonova). The degree of adequacy is characterized on the basis of the quantitative and qualitative correspondence of the implemented response to the content of the problem being solved, the optimality of the method of functioning of each of the systems included in the activity and their consistency with each other, the minimum consumption of psychophysiological resources based on the use of optimal methods of regulation.

Physiological and psychological research methods are used to diagnose functional states. Meaning physiological methods is that, firstly, they make it possible to objectively diagnose the state, correlate psychological phenomena with an organic basis, and secondly, they allow us to quantify the observed shifts in the functioning of a particular system (I.Yu. Myshkin). The most common electrophysiological indicators are: electroencephalogram (EEG) - an indicator of the level of brain activation; electrocardiogram (ECG) - assessment of the excitability of the heart muscle; electromyogram (EMG) - an indicator of muscle tone and the level of muscle excitability; galvanic skin response (GSR) is an indicator of the reaction of the autonomic nervous system associated with the activity of the reticular formation of the brain. Very often, vegetative indicators are also recorded: pulse rate, respiration, blood pressure, vascular tone, body temperature, biochemical changes, and a study of hormonal activity. The main problem facing the researcher when using physiological methods is the non-specificity of physiological parameters.

IN psychological There are two areas of research methods: methods of subjective diagnostics, among which there are methods of subjective scaling and questionnaires, and methods of psychometric testing. The advantages of questionnaires include well-developed symptoms of a particular condition, ease of response, ease of processing; to the disadvantages - the lack of a quantitative assessment of the severity of the condition. In addition, the questionnaire is usually designed to diagnose a strictly defined type of condition (stress, fatigue, monotony). The use of scales for studying states is based on an assessment of the experiences that arise in the process of a particular state. The advantages of scaling are the possibility of obtaining a quantitative assessment of the trait; disadvantages - in the difficulty of differentiation and analysis of signs, the need for a certain level of education, culture, intelligence in the subject. The use of psychometric testing methods is associated with the assessment of the success of a certain type of activity. The advantages of this group of techniques include the direct characterization of the functional capabilities of the subject in the process of a specific activity, the exclusion of a conscious overestimation of the effectiveness of the activity.

Based on the understanding of the functional state as an integral characteristic of the available properties and qualities of a person that determine the effectiveness of activity, I.Yu. Myshkin concludes that it is necessary to use complex methods that combine the advantages of all approaches. An integrated methodology makes it possible to study activities and states systematically and generally.