As is well known, in economics, public labor organization refers to the formation and maintenance of natural, reasonable proportions between the areas of application of labor, and, consequently, between the branches of social production and the non-productive sphere.
The most complex system public organization labor includes elements of various scales and significance :
- organization of interaction between production and non-production spheres;
- organization of interaction within these areas - sectoral and intersectoral organization of labor;
- organization of interaction within industries - organization of labor at individual enterprises;
- organization of interaction within enterprises - in their structural divisions up to the organization of labor of individual workers-performers.
The need to organize labor at any of these levels is due to such objectively existing and constantly developing categories as the division and the accompanying cooperation of labor.
Division of labor - this is the isolation of the activities of individual workers and their groups in the labor process. Thanks to the division of labor, the professional capacity of workers increases, labor productivity , the tools of production and technology are being improved.
There are three types of division of labor : general, particular and singular. TO general division of labor it is customary to attribute its division between the production and non-production spheres of human activity, and within these spheres - between industry, agriculture, transport, communications, trade, public education, science, public administration, culture, etc.
Private division of labor presupposes its division within the spheres and branches of the general division of labor. For example, industry is divided into branches, sub-sectors, associations, individual enterprises. A similar private division of labor exists in any branch of the non-productive sphere: in public education, medicine, public administration, and so on.
Single division of labor provides for the distribution of work and labor functions between employees of a separate enterprise or a separate organization: by workshops, sections, brigades, links, individual executing workers, as well as by their professional qualification groups.
This type of division of labor is the most complex and important, since specific labor processes are carried out precisely within the framework of a single division of labor. At the same level, there are economic results: specialization of performers and the improvement of their professional skills, the use of specialized high-performance equipment, the growth of labor productivity and an increase in the efficiency of production as a whole.
But the division of labor is only one side labor activity. It makes it necessary to unite the labor of individual workers and their groups in a common labor process, in interconnected labor processes at all levels - from the workplaces of individual performers and teams to entire enterprises, sub-sectors and interrelated industries. National economy. From this it is clear that another important element in the organization of labor activity is the cooperation of labor.
labor cooperation - this is an association, the establishment of relationships between separated, specialized performers in the process of labor activity. The complexity and importance of labor cooperation directly in production increases as the individual division of labor deepens.
In the substantive division of labor, when finished products are manufactured at the workplaces of individual workers, it is enough to provide the main production workers with raw materials, materials, energy, transport services, serviceable tools and equipment, technical documentation and determine the number of these workers based on the volume of the production program and the labor intensity of products .
But with a detailed division of labor, when only individual parts of the product are manufactured at different workplaces (with different labor inputs for manufacturing and assembling the product), a more difficult task arises - to unite the labor of all participants in a given production site, to ensure labor cooperation within the site. In this case it is labor cooperation that should ensure the continuity and uninterrupted production and labor processes , the most complete use of equipment and high productivity.
This problem is solved by arranging performers in proportion to the complexity of manufacturing individual parts and assembling the product. If the volume of production is greater than the minimum estimated number of workers can provide, then their number increases in proportion to the labor intensity. With a smaller volume of production, work on the manufacture of parts is combined.
There are the following forms of labor cooperation :
- cooperation within the enterprise - between individual workers, sections, workshops, divisions;
- intra-industry cooperation - between enterprises of specific industries for the production of certain types of products;
- cooperation within society between sectors of the economy.
The development of scientific and technological progress significantly affects the nature of the division and cooperation of labor. With the improvement of technology and technology, the conveyor with manual execution of monotonous tedious operations is being replaced by automatic systems, and a low-level worker is turning into a highly skilled operator. This requires an increase in the cultural and technical level of workers, opening up broad opportunities for changing jobs.
Division of labor There is a division of activities. The level of development of the productive forces of society is revealed in the development of the division of labor. In one form or another, the division of labor exists at all levels: from the world economy to a separate type of activity. The improvement of the division of labor leads to an increase in the efficiency of social labor.
The division of labor in an enterprise as an element of labor organization is the separation of the types of activities of workers, the establishment of functions, duties, scope of action for each of them, as well as for their groups that form various units.
The separation of types of work that occurs as a result of the division of labor creates the prerequisites for the formation of the content, methods, working conditions and rational use of personnel. It serves as the basis for improving the planning and maintenance of workplaces, mastering the working skills to perform the operations assigned to them, deepening knowledge, reducing the time spent on auxiliary work and maintenance of production processes.
The division of labor in the enterprise is inextricably linked with its cooperation. Labor cooperation is a consequence of its division and a prerequisite for the organization of labor at any level: from allied enterprises to workshops within each enterprise. The more detailed and deeper the division of labor, the more complex its cooperation.
Under labor cooperation understand the system of production relationships between individual performers and their groups engaged in the implementation of partial, but interconnected labor processes.
Labor cooperation is built on the following principles
Labor cooperation makes it possible to maintain consistency in the work of individual and collective performers, ensure the continuity of the production process, the rhythm of output, shorten the production cycle, and make better use of personnel in production.
The division of labor in society has three types (Fig. 2.4)
General division of labor is a division on the scale of the whole society into such large areas as production and non-production, industrial, agricultural, construction, transport, trade, scientific, government controlled etc.
Private division of labor there is a deepening of the process of isolation of labor within each sphere and industry into separate specialized sub-sectors and enterprises and organizations.
Single division of labor means isolation various kinds work within the enterprise:
1. First, within the framework of its structural divisions (workshop, site, brigade, department);
2. Secondly, between professional groups of workers, within groups - between workers of different qualifications;
3. Thirdly, the operational division of the labor process, which can deepen to individual labor methods.
The unit division of labor is subdivided into the following forms:
Technological;
functional;
Technological division of labor based on the separation of works on the basis of their technological homogeneity, can be enlarged and element-wise, depending on the type of production.
There are four types of technological division of labor:
Subject;
Detailed;
postoperative;
By type of work.
At substantive division of labor the performer is assigned the performance of work related to the manufacture finished product. (Used in a single production).
Detailed division of labor consists in assigning to the workers the manufacture of the finished part of the product - the part.
Operational division of labor is used when the process of manufacturing a part within a given phase is divided into separate operations, each of which is performed by a separate performer. Used in mass production.
Technological division by type of work used when the above varieties are not suitable, for example, welding, painting work.
Based on the technological division of labor, the work performed, functions, i.e. the functional division of labor is defined.
Functional division of labor reflects the separation of individual groups of workers depending on the production functions they perform. The following groups are distinguished:
Employees;
workers;
Junior service personnel;
Students;
Employees- are divided into managers, specialists, other employees (technical performers).
workers They are subdivided into the main ones, engaged in the production of the main products, and the auxiliary ones, performing work on servicing production.
The organizational structure of enterprise management is determined by the functional division of labor, which ensures the implementation of the main technological function, servicing the technological function, managerial function.
Vocational and qualification division of labor consists in the division of workers by profession and specialty and represents the distribution of work, depending on their complexity, between workers of different qualification groups.
Profession- the type of activity (occupation) of a person who owns certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of professional training.
Speciality- specialization of the employee within the profession.
The level of qualification of workers is established on the basis of the assignment of qualification categories to them. The level of qualification of managers and specialists is determined by the positions they hold. Categories are established for specialists.
The division of labor has positive and negative aspects. Its economic significance is due to the increase in labor productivity, the rapid development of professions, and the low cost of creating jobs. From a social and physiological standpoint, the consequences of the division of labor can be narrow specialization, impoverishment of the content of labor, monotony, monotony of labor, and fatigue.
From the features of the division of labor follows the need to respect the boundaries of the division of labor. The boundaries of the division of labor mean the maximum allowable values in the form of upper and lower limits of the division of the labor process, within which the greatest labor efficiency is achieved. There are the following divisions of labor:
Technical;
Economic;
Psychophysiological;
Social.
Technical boundary of the division of labor depends on the equipment and technology used and determines such a separation of the elements of labor that this technique allows. The lower limit is a technique consisting of at least three labor actions. The upper limit is the production of the object of labor.
Economic frontier of the division of labor provides for minimizing the time spent on work. The lower economic limit is such a division of the labor process, when the reduction in the cost of working time to perform an operation due to the deepening of specialization will be covered by an increase in the time spent on transporting the object of labor from one workplace to another. The upper economic limit is determined by the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace. Economic boundaries are characterized by:
The duration of the production cycle of manufacturing products (in the institution - the duration of the document flow);
Specific costs of working time for the production of a unit of output, calculated on the basis of full labor intensity;
Workload of an employee: the ratio of the time for performing basic functions to the duration of a shift (optimal coefficient = 0.8).
Psychophysiological boundaries determined by the capabilities of the human body, the requirements of maintaining health and performance. The lower limit for physical activity is 2.5-3 kcal. per minute, the upper limit is 4.5-5 kcal. in min.
For neuropsychic load - the lower limit is limited by the following parameters: the number of production-important objects of observation - 5, the duration of concentrated observation - 25% of the shift time, the pace of work is 360 movements per hour. Upper limit: the number of production-important objects of observation is no more than 25, the duration of concentrated observation is 75% of the shift time, the pace of work is 1080 movements per hour. The duration of repeatedly repeating elements should not be less than 45 seconds and include at least 4-5 actions.
Social frontier - division of labor, in which the content of labor, creative character, interest in work is not lost. An indicator of a negative social boundary is staff turnover, dismissal of people. Social criteria for the division of labor - staff stability, low staff turnover, high labor discipline, good condition interpersonal relationships, satisfaction with the content and working conditions.
The establishment of the optimal level of division of labor with a large number of various criteria can be carried out by solving using mathematical methods and computer technology.
The main forms of labor cooperation in the enterprise
The forms of labor cooperation are determined by its division. The main forms of labor cooperation at the enterprise on a territorial basis are:
Interfactory;
Intershop (intrafactory);
Intrashop (or intersectional,);
Intradistrict (or interbrigade);
Individual (between individual performers).
Intershop and intrashop cooperation can be technological or substantive, functional (depending on the technological or functional profile of the activity). According to the species characteristic, the following forms of cooperation are distinguished:
functional;
Technological;
Professional qualification.
Within the framework of technological cooperation, substantive, detailed, operational cooperation is distinguished, by type of work.
Trends in changing the content and forms of division and cooperation of labor associated with technical progress and the development on its basis of the organization of production and labor in enterprises are different and often contradictory.
Important directions in the development of divisions and cooperation of labor are the use of collective forms of labor organization, the combination of professions (functions) and positions, the expansion of service areas, multi-machine (multi-aggregate) service.
Essence combination of professions in that the employee, during the working hours established by law, along with his main job, performs the additional work of another employee, usually classified as a related profession. This leads to the complete release of workers who previously worked in a combined profession (if the combination is carried out constantly).
At combination of functions the employee, while maintaining the previous profile of his work, partially performs the duties of another performer. Such a combination of functions is accompanied by a partial release of workers.
Expansion of service areas differs from the combination of professions in that in this case, work is combined within the same profession. By this measure, it is possible to achieve an improvement in the use of working time, the release of workers.
The combination of professions (functions), the expansion of service areas are caused by the need for a more rational use of working time, a fuller load of equipment, increased maneuverability in the use of personnel, and ensuring interchangeability. The combination of professions (functions) expands the production profile of an employee, contributes to an increase in professional and qualification mobility, the content of labor, and eliminates monotony in work.
The main conditions under which it is possible and economically justified to combine professions:
The presence of unused working time for employees, due to the production technology or the equipment used;
Common content of labor in combined professions, their technological and functional interdependence;
Territorial proximity of jobs;
Variation in the performance of combined functions;
The absence of a negative impact of combining work on the accuracy, quality and productivity of labor;
Sufficient professional level of the employee or the possibility of its promotion.
Varieties of combinationprofessions
I. By types of combined professions, works, functions:
Combination of basic functions with the main ones;
Combination of main functions with auxiliary ones;
Combination of basic functions with equipment maintenance functions;
Combination of a number of auxiliary (or service) functions;
Combination of auxiliary functions (or serving) with the main ones.
II. By the number of combined professions (specialties):
One profession (simple combination);
Several professions (combined combination).
III. According to the degree of combination:
Complete (with the implementation of the entire scope of work in the combined profession);
Partial (performing part of the functions in the combined profession).
IV. In order of combination:
parallel;
Sequential.
V. According to the complexity of combined work compared to work in the main profession:
the lowest grade;
Similar category;
Higher rank.
VI. According to the stability of the combination:
Temporary;
Permanent.
The specific form of combination is selected in specific production conditions, depending on the production technology, the composition and location of equipment, the forms and depth of the division of labor, the qualifications of workers, etc.
Work on the introduction of a combination of professions and functions is carried out in the following sequence:
1. Identification of conditions, prerequisites for combining professions, functions (analysis of the balance of working time).
2. The choice of objects for the implementation of the combination.
3. The choice of options (types) of combination.
4. Determination of new functions of the employee, the amount of combined work and workload of the employee.
5. Calculation of labor standards.
6. Designing the organization of labor for an employee combining professions and functions.
7. Development of the necessary organizational and technical activities.
8. Development of a combination incentive system.
9. Calculation of the expected economic efficiency.
10. Training (if necessary) for employees of a combined profession; employee briefing.
11. Introduction of combination.
12. Making the necessary changes during the implementation of the combination.
13. Calculation of the actual economic efficiency from the combination of professions, functions, assessment of the social effect.
When identifying the possibilities of combining professions, all types of work performed are examined, the actual balance of the working time of performers is analyzed.
Installed:
The composition of the main and auxiliary works;
Employment of each performer;
The degree of duplication of work;
The share of each type of work;
The share of time spent by auxiliary, serving workers;
The amount of free time, as well as loss of working time, their causes.
When determining the scope of work for the main and combined profession, it is necessary to take into account:
The volume of work in a combined profession should, as a rule, be less than in the main one;
The complexity of the combined work should have minimal fluctuations;
The combination should ensure the normal employment of workers, reducing the monotony and increasing the content of labor;
The expansion of the combination of professions is permissible up to a certain limit, which is due to the fatigue of the employee;
For workers employed in areas with unfavorable working conditions, one should choose such a combination of professions that can reduce the impact of harmful factors;
Operations adopted for combination should not load the same body systems.
In the absence of regulatory materials, the scope of work can be determined on the basis of the FDD (photos of the working day) in such a way that the sum of the time of work in the main and combined professions and time for rest would correspond to the shift fund of the worker, time.
(2.1)
Where: Pi - amount of combined work; n- the number of combined works; T lane - the time of breaks for rest, personal needs and transition from one workplace to another; T cm - shift fund of working time.
To determine the specific possibility of combining professions, this employee uses the coefficient of possible combination To joint, calculated as follows:
Where: T sv - time free from work in the main profession, min.; T cm - shift fund of working hours, min.
Along with the combination of professions and functions, an important direction in the development of the division and cooperation of labor, the rational use of the total fund of working time and the expansion of the work profile of performers is multi-machine service.
Multi-station (multi-aggregate) service - this is a service in which a worker (or team) simultaneously (during a work shift) services several machines; (aggregates). At the same time, the worker performs manual work on some machines during the machine-automatic time of operation of other machines. The main condition for the use of multi-machine maintenance is that the machine-automatic time of each machine must be greater than or equal to the time during which the worker is busy servicing all other machines. This condition can be expressed as follows:
(2.3)
Where: T ma - machine-automatic time of the machine, during which the worker is free from the functions of its maintenance; T 3 - busy time on one machine, i.e. the time of auxiliary work, active observation of the work of one machine and the transition from one machine to another; n – the number of simultaneously serviced machines.
In practice, the most widespread are 2 variants of multi-machine maintenance.
1) Maintenance of several backup machines, i.e. machines that are not connected by a common rhythm of work with other machines and work independently of each other, therefore, stopping one of them does not cause the others to stop.
2) Maintenance of machines connected by a common rhythm of work.
Considering the multi-machine maintenance option is important when determining the number of machines and when choosing a maintenance method.
When switching to multi-machine maintenance, the necessary preparatory work must be carried out.
1) It is necessary to check the fulfillment of the norms by workers for a number of months and analyze the balance of working time and equipment operation in order to identify the amount of passive observation time, downtime, and the systematic implementation of the norms.
2) Determination of the optimal service area.
3) The choice of a rational functional division of labor between workers.
4) Selection of machines, taking into account the structure of operational time and uniformity in the methods of managing them.
5) Equipping the equipment with convenient control panels, devices, etc.
6) Rational placement (layout) of equipment at the workplace, development of convenient routes for the movement of a multi-machine operator from one machine to another.
7) Selection of appropriate parts (products) for processing under conditions of multi-machine maintenance,
8) Development of rational techniques and methods of labor, training of workers in them.
9) Determination of the most effective maintenance systems for a multi-machine workplace.
10) Calculation of the economic efficiency of the introduction of multi-machine maintenance.
11) Ensuring the material interest of workers in the transition to multi-machine service and in achieving high results of their work.
The basis for calculating multi-machine maintenance is the duration and structure of the cycle of multi-machine work ( T c). Multi-Machine Service Cycle- this is the time during which all regularly recurring elements of operational work on the serviced machines are fully carried out. If during multi-machine maintenance the working time is fully used, then:
where is the time of employment on all machines).
If the worker has free time ( T sv), That:
(2.5)
If there is equipment downtime, then:
(2.6)
Where T ms– free machine time, i.e. the time of machine-automatic operation of the machine, during which the worker is not busy doing manual work and actively monitoring the technological process on this machine; T ps- the time of breaks in the operation of machines due to waiting for service, related to one cycle.
Efforts should be made to ensure equality. It depends on the selection of machines and the definition of the operations to be performed by the worker.
When determining the optimal service area, the degree of employment of the worker is taken into account by calculating the employment coefficient ( K 3), which is defined as the quotient of the busy time ( T 3) by the value of the operational time of an individual machine ( T op).
At optimal conditions the sum of the employment coefficients for all serviced machines should not exceed one, otherwise there may be equipment downtime. Thus, the condition must be met:
Calculation of the number of machines included in the multi-machine service ( n) in the simplest case, when all machines are the same and perform the same operations (such maintenance is called cyclic), is performed according to the formula:
(2.9)
where K n is a coefficient that takes into account the time for transitions from machine to machine and micropauses in work; 1 - the first machine; T ma - machine-automatic time.
With non-cyclic maintenance, when machines perform different operations of unequal duration, the number of machines to be serviced is determined by the formula:
(2.10)
Where: T gm- the maximum time of employment of a worker on one machine.
The most widely used in industry are 3 methods of multi-machine service: guard (on duty), route and route-guard.
With the watchdog method, the worker observes the operation of all machines, approaches them when necessary. This method is possible when servicing a group of different types of technological equipment, backup machines, and is advisable when servicing a small number of machines.
With the route method, a multi-station bypasses objects along a certain route, stopping at those that require service. This method it is used everywhere - in the case of cyclic and non-cyclic operation, but with a large service area.
The route must meet the following requirements:
a) be as short as possible so that the worker returns as quickly as possible to the place from which he left (in order to quickly eliminate possible problems that have arisen during his absence);
b) ensure uniform maintenance of each machine, or section of the workplace;
c) be simple.
The route can be pendulum, ring (circular), return, cross-ring.
The route-guard service method combines the first two methods. Its use is advisable when servicing several machines, among which there are machines that perform single-pass operations with a long technological cycle, as well as machines that perform relatively short, but multi-pass operations. Then the maintenance of the first, with a long technological cycle, is carried out according to the route method, and the rest - as needed.
The layout of the multi-station workplace should provide, along with the minimum time for the transitions of the worker from machine to machine, the following:
Free access to each machine;
Direct territorial connection of the working area with common aisles and driveways, but without crossing the working area;
Possibility of a free overview of all serviced equipment from any point of the bypass route.
The organization of labor at the enterprise begins with its division, which, as an element of the organization of labor, is the separation of the types of activities of employees, the establishment of functions, duties, scope for each of them, as well as for their groups that form different divisions. That is division of labor- this is a qualitative differentiation of labor activity in the process of development of society, leading to the isolation and implementation of its various types.
Let's pay attention to division of labor within society And within the enterprise. These two main types of division of labor are interrelated and interdependent. The division of social production into large sectors (agriculture, construction, industry, etc.) is social division of labor the division of these branches of production into types and subtypes (for example, industry into separate sub-sectors) is considered private division of labor and, finally, the division of labor within the enterprise is single division of labor, inseparable from the profession, specialization of workers. The term "division of labor" is also used to denote the specialization of production within one country and between countries - territorial and international division of labor.
Depending on the type, type and variety of work, the division of labor is distinguished: functional, professional, technological and qualification.
functional the division of labor involves the division of personnel into functionally homogeneous groups, each of which differs in its role in the implementation of the production process or activity. There may be several such groups. First of all, employees, workers, junior service personnel, students, security are allocated. According to the classification adopted in our country, the category "employees" is divided into managers, specialists, and other employees, who are sometimes called technical executors. Workers are divided into main and auxiliary. The former are directly involved in the production of those products that are core (basic) for the enterprise. The second perform work on the maintenance of the main production. Junior service personnel include cleaners, janitors, cloakroom attendants, etc. In the functional group "security", guard, paramilitary and fire protection, etc. are distinguished.
Professional division consists in the division of workers according to professions and specialties. Under profession refers to the type of activity (occupation) of a person who owns certain theoretical knowledge and practical skills obtained as a result of professional training. Speciality- this is a kind of profession, its narrower part, the specialization of an employee within the profession. For example, the profession is an economist, and the specialty is a labor economist, etc. On the basis of the professional division of labor, the number of employees of different professions necessary for the enterprise is determined.
Technological the division of labor involves the placement of workers in stages, phases, types of work and production operations, depending on the technology of the production process, on the content and features of the work.
Historically, the process of development of material production proceeded from universal labor to specialized labor. These types of labor have their positive and negative sides. Universal labor requires versatile skill from the worker, equal skill in performing different jobs. This, as a rule, is a meaningful, interesting, varied work, saturated with creative elements. However, with all the positive qualities, such work is not very productive. Progress followed the path of specialization of labor, separation of work by specialties, and within specialties - by type of work, which contributed to the growth of labor productivity and increased efficiency of personnel. As production processes became more complex, more and more specialization and a narrower division of labor were required to ensure the growth of labor productivity.
The advantages of specialized labor in comparison with universal labor are as follows: 1) it becomes possible to more accurately select a performer to perform work that requires certain individual qualities from him; 2) the terms for preparing an employee to perform a limited range of duties are reduced; 3) the worker quickly achieves the skill, the necessary speed and accuracy of work; 4) Prerequisites are being created for a more complete automation of labor; 5) there is an opportunity to improve the organization of the workplace, equipping it with specialized equipment.
All this contributes to the growth of labor productivity. But as specialization deepens, due to the increasingly narrowing range of duties and work, the content of labor decreases, and its monotony grows. The transition of a certain rational border of specialization leads to the fact that the growth of labor productivity stops due to the accumulation of negative aspects of highly specialized labor: interest in work disappears, staff turnover increases, which leads to additional costs for the selection and training of new employees, for their adaptation to master duties etc.
Graphically, the dependence of labor productivity on its content can be traced in Fig. 4.
Rice. 4. Scheme of the influence of the content of labor on its productivity
If at the point "y" a certain level of productivity of universal labor has been established - P y, which differs in content equal to C y, then with specialization, labor productivity will increase to the value of P m, which is indicated on the curve by the point "m". Further specialization, shown in the Sm - O section, will lead to a drop in the growth of labor productivity and, therefore, will indicate the inexpediency of deepening its division. Such dynamics of labor productivity leads to the need to justify the optimal level of division of labor in the organization, which in the figure will be at the point "m".
Qualifying the division of labor is the distribution of work depending on their complexity among workers of different skill groups. The level of qualification of workers is established on the basis of the assignment of qualification categories to them. The first category corresponds to the lowest level of qualification. Enterprises have 6-, 8-digit and other tariff scales. At public sector enterprises, i.e. those whose activities are financed from the state budget, a single 18-digit tariff scale has been established. The level of qualification of managers and specialists is determined by the positions they hold. For specialists - engineers, designers, technologists - categorization is established, for example, designers of the 3rd, 2nd and 1st categories (the 1st category means a higher qualification than the 2nd, and even more so the 3rd).
To address issues of division of labor, the concepts of "division boundaries" and "division level" are used. Separation boundaries- these are the lower and upper limits, below and above which, respectively, the division of labor is unacceptable. Separation level- this is the accepted calculated or actually achieved value, characterizing the state of the division of labor. The unit of division of labor is production operation.
There are the following divisions of labor: technical, economic, psychophysiological and social.
Lower technical boundary The division of labor will be a production operation consisting of one labor method, as a set of labor actions and movements of an employee, continuously following one another and having a specific purpose. This is usually a simple elementary job. The upper technical boundary of the division will be the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace. Lower economic frontier the division of labor will be such a division of the labor process, when the reduction in the cost of working time to perform an operation due to the deepening of specialization will be equalized, and then will be offset by an increase in the time spent on transporting the object of labor from one workplace to another. The upper economic limit is determined by the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of the entire product at one workplace. Psychophysiological boundaries the division of labor is determined by the magnitude of physical and neuropsychic stress per worker during the working day. For physical activity, the lower limit is an energy expenditure of 2.5–3 kcal/min, the upper limit is 4.5–5 kcal/min. For the neuropsychic load, the lower limit is limited by the following parameters: the number of production-important objects of observation that determine the level of attention tension should be no more than 5; the duration of concentrated observation should not exceed 25% of the shift time; the pace of work should not exceed 360 movements per hour. For the upper limit, these parameters should not exceed, respectively, 25 objects of observation, 75% of the shift time for concentrated observation, 1080 movements per hour. social boundaries the division of labor is determined by the level of monotony of labor and staff turnover, the attitude of workers to work, the state of interpersonal relations. The monotony of labor is regulated by the duration of repeated homogeneous operations within 1 working day. The boundary value is the duration of such operations of at least 30 s, the frequency of repetition of heterogeneous elements of the operation should be at least 5 per 30 s. Employees' judgments about the degree of satisfaction with work, according to the measurements accepted in sociology, can be in the range from 0.33 to 1.0. Personnel turnover as a sociological limit should not be higher than the industry average or the average for a group of similar enterprises. The level of social activity, according to sociologists, should be in the range from 10 to 100 %. Interpersonal relationships are measured using the coefficients of psychological tension of relations (interval from 1 to 0), reciprocity (interval from 0 to 1-), neutrality (interval from 1 to 0).
If the boundaries of the division of labor indicate the limits of acceptable decisions that should guide the organizers of labor and production in this area, then for a specific production situation it is important to find the best option, i.e. optimal level of division of labor, which is calculated based on the use of economic, psychophysiological and social criteria.
economic criteria the division of labor is: the cost of working time and material costs for the performance of work, the degree of use of the qualifications of workers, the duration of the production cycle, the level of labor productivity, the costs and profits of the enterprise. The economic direction of improving the division of labor is to achieve savings in labor and material costs, which, in turn, leads to a reduction in production costs and an increase in the profit of the enterprise. Guided by economic criteria, the leader in the division of labor should strive to use workers in accordance with their qualifications, i.e. so arrange the staff so that the level of qualification of each employee corresponds to the complexity of the work performed by him. It should minimize the cost of labor, material resources and production costs, as well as maximize labor productivity and profits of the enterprise.
Psychophysiological criteria division of labor are indicators of a person's working capacity, which depends on the sanitary and hygienic working conditions, on the severity and neuropsychic tension of labor, on the distribution physical activity on different organs and systems of a person, from the magnitude of the combination of physical activity with mental. In the division of labor, the variant of labor is chosen which ensures the maximum performance of a person and in the best way ensures the health of the worker.
social criteria division of labor are: stability of the team, low staff turnover, high labor discipline, a good state of interpersonal relations between interacting workers, high level their social activity, satisfaction with the content and working conditions.
Establishing the optimal level of division of labor with such a large number of diverse criteria is a difficult task. The decision will be erroneous if guided only by economic criteria. Most noteworthy is the experience of optimizing the division of labor, when calculations begin with the use of social, then psychophysiological, and only then economic criteria. With this approach, the best probability of satisfying the interests of individual employees, the workforce and the organization as a whole is created.
Under labor cooperation understand the system of production interconnection of workers in the implementation of the labor process and their interaction in the unit and in the organization, i.e. this is a form of combining the labor activity of a large number of workers in a single labor process. Historically, two main types of labor cooperation are known: simple labor cooperation - cooperation of homogeneous (identical) concrete labor; complex- cooperation is based on the division of labor. Simple cooperation It is used where the work can be divided into homogeneous parts, and their implementation is entrusted to different workers (packing, packaging, weeding, etc.), or where the work requires the connection of homogeneous labor forces (lifting a heavy load). With simple cooperation, each worker is able to do his job independently, but with less effect. Complex cooperation is the cooperation of specialized labor, it is characteristic of the manufacturing period and the stage of large-scale machine production. With complex cooperation, a specialized worker is not able to carry out one or another type of production on his own, but only in cooperation with other specialized workers.
The cooperation of labor is inextricably linked with its division. The arrangement of workers should be carried out in such a way as to achieve their expedient interaction by rationalizing the routes for moving objects of labor, saving labor costs, and reducing the duration of the production cycle. Forms of labor cooperation are similar in name to the forms of its division. First, cooperation is on a territorial basis: between departments, within a department, between departments, within departments, etc. Forms of division of labor will be named in accordance with the structural division of the organization. Secondly, cooperation is established by type. There are forms of cooperation: functional, professional, technological and qualification. In turn, technological cooperation is subdivided into substantive, detailed, cooperative cooperation and by type of work.
The division and cooperation of labor (Fig. 5) are the starting points for the organization of labor in the enterprise and largely determine it general level. It is important to deal professionally and competently with the establishment of rational forms of division and cooperation of labor.
Rice. 5. Forms of division and cooperation of labor
The improvement of these forms is achieved by combining professions and positions, expanding work areas, and developing collective forms of organization and stimulation of labor. Great opportunities have: the use of methods based on the use of psychophysiological features of people's perception of a particular production environment, taking into account the socio-psychological factors of the production environment, such as the age and sex composition of the team, the value orientations of workers, the totality of their needs, interests, preferences, behavioral motives.
The division and cooperation of labor are the basis of its organization. They determine the place of each employee in the labor process at the enterprise, his functions and duties, as well as the requirements for the quality of work and the qualifications of each employee.
Division and cooperation of labor- These are interrelated and complementary aspects of labor activity.
Under division of labor the enterprise understands the differentiation of people's activities in the process of joint labor, production of products and provision of services.
Intra-production division of labor is a process of segregation of various types of labor and specialization of jobs and workers to perform their respective functions, jobs and operations. A rational division of labor ensures the optimal placement of workers in their workplaces, taking into account their personal abilities, professional and business qualities, and attitudes towards work, which makes it possible to increase not only the results of labor, but also working capacity, the degree of job satisfaction and interest in it, and reduce fatigue. The division of labor contributes to the growth of the professional skills of workers, improving the quality of their work, as well as reducing costs, etc.
Main division of labor at the enterprise are technological, functional, professional and qualification.
Technologicaldivision of labor depends on the structure of the production process, the level of its mechanization, the volume and type of production and is carried out on the basis of dividing the production process into stages (procurement, processing, assembly), limits, phases, partial technological processes and operations. Technological division of labor can be cooperative, detailed and element-wise.
Cooperative division labor provides for the distribution and consolidation for a long time for individual workers of certain technological operations. This ensures a rational distribution of workers and their maximum employment. With a detailed division of labor, the worker is entrusted with the performance of all operations that make up the process of manufacturing a part or the completed phase of manufacturing a given part.
At element by element In the division of labor, an operation is carried out by several workers, and each worker gradually performs a part of the operation, a separate technique or labor action.
Operational and element-by-element division of labor contributes to the specialization of labor. Workers who specialize in performing a certain operation (reception, action) master the technique and technology of work faster, improve them, which ensures an increase in labor productivity.
functional the division of labor determines the role and place of each worker in the labor process at the enterprise and provides for the separation of various types of labor activity at the enterprise and the performance of specific work by groups of workers performing functions of different content.
Depending on the content of the functions, the personnel of the enterprise is divided into two categories: workers and employees.
According to the functional division of labor, all workers, depending on their relationship to the technological process, are divided into main workers directly involved in the production of products, performance of work or provision of services, and auxiliary workers, who provide conditions for the productive work of the main workers.
Depending on the content of the work performed, employees are divided into managers, specialists and employees.
Professional the division of labor consists in the isolation within functional groups of certain types of work, depending on the content and stability of their assignment to the same workers, in the specialization of labor activity according to the commonality of special knowledge and methods of influencing the subject of labor. It determines the division of the personnel of the enterprise into separate groups of workers according to professions and specialties. The profession is determined by the totality of theoretical knowledge necessary for a particular work activity, and labor skills acquired by an employee in the process of vocational training. Working professions: turner, machine operator, assembler, locksmith, etc. Employees include technologists, mechanics, economists, accountants, etc.
The specialty is characterized by the division of labor within individual professions and the isolation of a specific, narrower area of activity. For example, a plumber, a car mechanic, a labor economist, an accountant wages, woodworking technologist, etc.
Qualifying the division of labor implies that within each professional group the division of workers is carried out depending on the level of qualification, i.e., on the ability to perform work of a certain complexity, requiring special theoretical knowledge, practical skills and experience. The qualification characteristic of the worker is the degree of mastering the work of a particular category with the assignment of the corresponding tariff category to him.
The choice of rational types of division of labor depends on the type of production, the volume and complexity of products, the technical equipment of production, the level of its organization and involves the rationale for the optimal boundary of the division of labor.
Each form of division of labor has its own reasonable limits or boundaries, the observance of which allows, firstly, to reduce the impoverishment of the content, attractiveness and significance of labor; secondly, to ensure the rational loading of workers and the efficient use of working time.
There are technological, economic, psycho-physiological and social boundaries of the division of labor.
Technological the boundaries of the division of labor are determined by the level of division of the production process into phases, stages, production operations and their content, methods and methods of organizing production, as well as the level of specialization of equipment, tools, fixtures and jobs.
Economic the boundaries of the division of labor reflect the impact of the level of division of labor on the final results of the labor activity of the employees of the enterprise. The economic criteria for the division of labor are the reduction in the labor intensity of the work performed due to the specialization of labor, the reduction in the duration of the production cycle, the increase in productivity and the loading of equipment and jobs.
Psychophysiological the boundaries of the division of labor are determined by permissible physical and psychological stresses that ensure compliance with the requirements for maintaining the health and working capacity of workers, creating safe conditions work. Psychophysiological criterion of the division of labor is an indicator of its monotony.
Studies show that the monotony of the labor process, associated with the duration and repetition of monotonous methods and labor operations during operational time, causes an increase in fatigue, as a result of which labor productivity decreases.
The social boundaries of the division of labor are determined by the decrease in its content and attractiveness. Labor that does not bring moral satisfaction to workers is devoid of creativity and does not contribute to the growth of qualifications and interest in the results and labor process.
The division of labor is inextricably linked with its cooperation. The deeper the division of labor, the wider and more complex the cooperation. The cooperation of labor is based on its division. Under cooperation labor understand the combination of various types of work and labor processes to obtain the final result of joint work. It is a system of sustainable labor relations between individual performers and production units in the process of manufacturing and selling products.
The types of labor cooperation are determined different ways division of labor and are inextricably linked with the organizational and technical features of the enterprise.
At domestic enterprises, three types of industrial cooperation are used: intershop, intrashop and intrasectoral.
If the division of labor is carried out “from above”, i.e., the production process is divided into phases, stages, production operations (shops, sections, jobs), then cooperation is “from below”, i.e., intra-sectional cooperation is first distinguished, then intra-shop and the process is completed by intershop cooperation.
Intradistrict cooperation ensures the coordinated work of the teams of the production site and consists in creating organizational conditions for the successful interaction of all site workers in their joint labor activity.
Intrashop cooperation is a form of coordinated work of the production sections of the workshop. It is aimed at ensuring the uninterrupted flow of the process in a certain section of the workshop.
Intershop cooperation consists in the coordinated and coordinated labor activity of the teams of workshops connected by the production process. The effectiveness of intershop cooperation depends on the state of operational management of the work of all interconnected shops, both main and service (auxiliary).
The boundaries of rational labor cooperation are determined by two criteria:
● organizational, according to which two or more performers can be combined to perform any work, but up to their number, determined by the manageability norm, the excess of which can lead to inconsistency of actions and loss of working time;
● economic, characterizing the possibility of maximum reduction of labor costs per unit of output.
Choice the best option division and cooperation of labor is carried out on the basis of a comprehensive analysis of the specifics of the production process, the content of the work performed, the requirements for their quality, the degree of specialization and workload, the level of organization of production and other factors. It should ensure an increase in the efficiency of labor and production.
Forms of labor organization
Depending on the division and cooperation of labor, there are two forms of its organization in the enterprise:
● individual - each worker at his workplace performs either one or more homogeneous operations permanently assigned to him, or a complex of heterogeneous operations, or all operations for the manufacture of a particular type of product (product);
● collective - a group of workers unites for the joint and most effective implementation of a complex of heterogeneous and a group of homogeneous labor operations.
The most effective collective form of labor organization is the brigade. At domestic industrial enterprises, depending on the content of the work performed, various types of production teams are used:
● specialized, carrying out technologically homogeneous types of work or operations and uniting workers of the same profession or specialty;
● complex, performing a complex of technologically heterogeneous, but interconnected types of work and operations and uniting workers of various professions and specialties. These brigades can be either with full, partial distribution of labor, or without division of labor.
Depending on the mode of operation, shift teams are organized, uniting workers of one shift, and through teams, including workers of several shifts. These brigades can be both specialized and complex.
At industrial enterprises, production teams are created in the following cases:
1) for maintenance of large units, automatic lines, flexible production systems;
2) when a group of jobs is connected by a common rhythm of work (for example, production lines);
3) when performing a certain amount of homogeneous work that requires the simultaneous participation of several performers;
4) if a certain completed part of the technological process cannot be performed by one worker and requires parallel work of a group of workers;
5) to perform certain work in order to increase responsibility for the final results of labor and ensure material interest in high-quality and efficient work.
The formation of teams in a production environment requires compliance with a number of principles:
● technical isolation, which consists in assigning certain operations, nomenclature of parts and assemblies to the brigade;
● territorial integrity, which means assigning a certain production area to the brigade, where the corresponding jobs are located;
● voluntariness, providing for the creation of a brigade and the unification of jobs based on the personal interest of workers, and not just production needs;
● equivalence, which assumes that workers of all shifts employed on the same equipment are included in one cross-cutting team while maintaining the necessary organizational independence of each shift;
● reliability of accounting, which determines the need and possibility of ensuring the correct and reliable acceptance of the results of the work team;
● efficiency of planning, which provides for bringing to the brigade the production task, reflecting the content of its activities and the system of material incentives;
● the optimal number, which characterizes the number and composition of workers in the team in accordance with the current standards of manageability.
The indicated principles of organizing teams can be successfully implemented if, during their formation, a thorough analysis of production conditions, the nature and content of production relations is carried out, issues of regulation of labor and its payment, optimization of the number, planning, accounting and cost accounting are considered and resolved.
The improvement of technology and technology, the growth of the cultural and technical level, the qualifications and skills of workers create the prerequisites for the introduction of advanced forms and methods of organizing labor. This has not only economic, but also social significance; helps to eliminate the monotony of labor, increase its attractiveness and content, increase the qualifications of workers and expand their labor profile. These forms of labor include the combination of professions and functions, multi-machine maintenance.
Combination of professions represents the performance by one worker of functions and works related to various professions. This means that the worker during the normal working hours, along with his main job, performs work in another profession or specialty. You can combine various functions, but on condition that labor productivity does not decrease. An allied profession is one that has a technological or organizational commonality with the main one and is carried out at the workplace in the main profession (for example, a machine operator). The performance of work in an adjacent profession is called combination. Combination also includes the mastery of a second specialty (profession) by a worker, the ore functions of which do not have common features with the functions of the main profession. The combination can be complete if the worker performs all the labor functions of a worker of another specialty, or partial, if only part of the functions of a worker of one specialty is transferred to the worker.
Significantly important point analysis of the division of labor is to consider it as a condition for increasing labor productivity on the scale of society and each individual enterprise. Modern production is characterized by the isolation of individual processes and work, which makes it possible to specialize the tools of the pile and workers, shorten the production cycle, and increase labor productivity.
Separation of processes and works implies, first of all, the division of labor. Under the division of labor in the enterprise is understood the differentiation of the activities of those working in the process of joint labor, as well as their specialization in the performance of a certain part of the joint work. With the development of technology and technology, production processes become more complex, which causes the development and deepening of the division of labor in enterprises. This is due to the fact that the forms of division of labor significantly affect the specialization, planning and equipment of workplaces, their maintenance, methods and techniques of labor, its rationing. By rationalizing the forms of division and cooperation of labor, full and uniform loading of performers, coordination and synchronization of their work are ensured.
The main types of division of labor are: general, particular and individual.
It is customary to refer to the general its division between the production and non-production activities of people, and within these areas - between industry, agriculture, transport, communications, trade, education, science, culture, etc.
Private division of labor - the separation of various types of labor activity within the industry (cheese and milk canning plants in the dairy industry, champagne factories and breweries in the fermentation industry, etc.).
The unit division of labor provides for the distribution of work and labor functions between employees of a separate enterprise: by workshops, sections, teams, links, as well as by their professional qualification groups.
The intra-production division of labor consists in the allocation of types of work, which are partial production processes, and their assignment to certain workers in order to increase labor productivity based on accelerating the assimilation of labor skills by workers, specializing tools and jobs, and parallel operations. The division of labor in the enterprise is simultaneously carried out in the following main forms:
The technological division of labor is carried out on the basis of the division of the production process into stages (preparation, processing, assembly), redistributions, phases, partial technological processes and operations.
The operational division of labor provides for the distribution and assignment of the operations of the technological process to individual workers, the placement of workers, ensuring their rational employment and optimal loading of equipment.
Detailed division involves assigning to the contractor the manufacture of the finished part of the product or part.
The substantive division of labor provides for the assignment to a specific contractor of a set of works that make it possible to fully manufacture the product.
The functional division of labor provides for the separation of various types of labor activity and the performance of specific work by the relevant groups of workers specializing in the performance of production or other functions that are different in content and economic significance. According to the functional division of labor, there is a division of all workers into the main ones, engaged in the direct production of products or the performance of basic work; auxiliary, which themselves do not directly produce marketable products, but provide with their labor the work of the main workers; serving, creating conditions for the productive work of both the main and auxiliary workers. In separate functional groups allocate managers, specialists and employees.
The professional division of labor is carried out depending on the professional specialization of the workers and involves the performance of work in the workplace within the framework of a particular profession. Based on the volume of each type of these works, it is possible to determine the need for workers by profession, both for the enterprise as a whole and for its structural divisions.
The qualification division of labor is caused by the varying complexity of work, which requires a certain level of knowledge and experience of workers. For each profession of workers, the composition of operations or work of varying degrees of complexity is established, which are grouped according to the assigned tariff categories or qualification categories. On this basis, the number of employees is determined for each profession, qualification grades and categories.
The division of labor is inextricably linked with the cooperation of labor. The deeper the division of labor, the greater value acquires cooperation. Labor cooperation in an enterprise is an association of workers in the course of the joint implementation of a single process or a group of interrelated labor processes.
The complexity and importance of labor cooperation directly in production increases as the individual division of labor deepens. In the substantive division of labor, when finished products are manufactured at the workplaces of individual workers, it is enough to provide the main production workers with raw materials, materials, energy, transport services, serviceable tools and equipment, technical documentation and determine the number of these workers based on the volume of the production program and the labor intensity of products . With a detailed division of labor, when only individual parts of the product are manufactured at different workplaces, and the complexity of their manufacture and assembly of the product is different, a more difficult task arises - to unite the labor of all participants in a given production area, to ensure intra-sectional cooperation of labor, which should ensure the continuity and uninterrupted production and labor processes, the most complete use of equipment and high labor productivity
The specific forms of labor cooperation at the enterprise are diverse, since they are inextricably linked with the organizational and technical features of the enterprise. They are usually reduced to three main forms - intershop, intrashop and intrasector labor cooperation.
Intershop cooperation is associated with the division of the production process between shops and consists in the participation of teams of shops in the general labor process for the enterprise in manufacturing products.
Intra-shop cooperation is the interaction of individual structural divisions of shops (sections, production lines).
Intra-sectional cooperation consists in the interaction of individual workers in the process of joint work or organization collective labor workers organized into teams.
Labor cooperation is limited mainly by organizational and economic boundaries.
The closest cooperation of the members of the labor collective is achieved with the brigade form of labor organization. The production team is a primary labor collective of workers of the same or different professions, specialties, qualifications, jointly performing a single production task and united by a common economic assessment of labor results.
When deciding on the organization of teams, it should be borne in mind that they are most effective in cases of:
If a certain completed part of the technological process cannot be performed by one performer and requires the parallel work of a group of workers;
If a group of jobs is connected by a common rhythm of work (for example, on production lines and assembly lines);
When servicing large units and automatic lines, flexible production systems (FPS);
When performing repair and installation work that requires the simultaneous participation of several performers.
At present, the following brigade forms are common at enterprises: specialized shift and through, complex shift and through.
Specialized teams are organized from workers of the same profession or specialty to perform homogeneous technological operations, most often for metalwork and assembly, installation, adjustment, loading and unloading operations.
Complex teams are organized from workers of various professions and specialties to perform a complex of technologically heterogeneous, but interconnected works.
Specialized and integrated teams can be shift, uniting workers of one shift, and through (daily), including workers employed in several shifts. Work experience of shift specialized and complex teams, i.е. crews that operate only during the shift and then give way workplace another brigade, indicates the possibility of incomplete loading of equipment and irregular work.
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