The child is constantly growing, and his development proceeds in a certain, regular sequence. Identification of the stages and periods of a child's development, which have their own anatomical and physiological features, allows a differentiated approach to the child. Its development is influenced by both genetic factors and various environmental factors, including teratogenic and infectious. Traditionally, intrauterine (prenatal) and extrauterine (postnatal) stages of development are distinguished.
INTRATERNAL STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
The intrauterine stage of development lasts an average of 280 days (40 weeks) from the moment of conception to birth (Table 1-1).
Table 1-1.Periods of prenatal development
Initial period (concept)
Fertilization occurs within 1 day after ovulation. The fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube in this case, the process of crushing occurs (the outer layer of cells is the trophoblast, the inner layer is the embryoblast) and the implantation of the resulting blastocyst into the endometrium. Gastrulation - the formation of primary germ layers - begins at the end of the 2nd week of development and is characterized by the appearance of the cells' ability to move.
Embryonic period
This period is characterized by high rates of tissue differentiation, and by the end of it (for a period of 8 weeks), the rudiments of all major organs and systems are formed. During the first 7 weeks, the embryo does not show motor activity, with the exception of heartbeats, determined from the 4th week. At the 8th week of development, a localized muscular response to stimulation can be detected, by the 9th week the surfaces of the palms and soles become reflexogenic, and spontaneous intestinal motility is also noted. The mass of the embryo at this time is 9 g, and the body length is 5 cm. Various diseases and bad habits of the pregnant woman, gene and chromosomal abnormalities of the fetus can lead to its death or spontaneous abortion. Unfavorable conditions of intrauterine life, exposure to infectious agents (rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, mycoplasma, etc.) can disrupt the differentiation of fetal tissues, which leads to the formation of congenital malformations.
Fetal (fetal) period
From the 9th week, the number and size of cells increase, the fetus grows rapidly, there is a structural restructuring of organs and systems with intensive maturation of tissues. The fetal circulatory system reaches its final development between the 8th and 12th weeks of pregnancy. Blood from the placenta through the umbilical vein and ductus venosus enters the liver and inferior vena cava. Having reached the right atrium, the blood enters the left atrium through the open foramen ovale, then into the left ventricle, ascending aorta, and cerebral arteries. Through the superior vena cava, blood returns to the right atrium and ventricle, and from the pulmonary artery through the arterial duct enters the descending aorta, from where it returns through the umbilical arteries to the placenta. By the 12th week, the weight of the fetus is 14 g, the length is 7.5 cm, the signs of sex become distinct, the cerebral cortex is determined. By the 27-28th week of gestation, the brain resembles the brain of a newborn, but the cortex is not yet functioning, the brain stem and spinal cord are actively growing and myelinating, performing vital functions. By the 13th-14th week, smooth movements appear in response to stimulation of all zones, at this time the movements of the fetus can be first noticed by the mother; they are clearly felt by the 20th week. The grasp reflex appears by the 17th week. Respiratory movements are noted at the 18th week; these movements create a flow of amniotic fluid into and out of the developing lungs. With a prolonged pregnancy (more than 42 weeks), when meco-
However, aspiration of amniotic fluid can lead to the entry of meconium into the alveoli, which subsequently causes respiratory problems. By the 12th week, the megaloblastic type of hematopoiesis is completely replaced by the normoblastic one, and leukocytes appear in the peripheral blood. From the 20th to the 28th week, bone marrow hematopoiesis is established (instead of the hepatic one). Fetal hemoglobin (Hb), mainly fetal (HbF), has a greater affinity for oxygen than adult Hb (HbA), synthesized in the late fetal period. At the 14th week of development, the fetus begins to swallow, and from the 28-29th week it can actively suck. Bile begins to separate around the 12th week, and digestive enzymes soon appear. Meconium begins to form by the 16th week; it consists of desquamated cells of the intestinal epithelium, intestinal juices and squamous cells, swallowed with amniotic fluid. The immune system is formed starting from the 6th week in the form of a response to mitogens. At the 10th week, the activity of T-killers is determined. At the 8-9th week of intrauterine development, infiltration of the thymus gland with lymphoid cells begins; by the 12th week, the gland looks like a mature organ. Circulating B-lymphocytes are found at the 13th week of gestation; A 20-week-old fetus has the ability to synthesize all major classes of immunoglobulins (Ig). First, IgM appear, and their increased content is considered as a sign of IUI. The transfer of IgG from a pregnant woman to a fetus before the 32nd week is negligible, therefore, in premature babies, their content is low.
By the end of the second trimester of pregnancy, the weight of the fetus is approximately 1000 g, the body length is about 35 cm. The last trimester is characterized by a significant increase in the body weight of the fetus, subcutaneous tissue and muscles.
The development of the fetus is largely dependent on the condition of the placenta. With various damages, it becomes permeable to bacteria, viruses and other infectious agents that can cause fetal diseases and / or premature birth. These and other pathogenic factors lead to a delay in intrauterine development of the fetus, a lag in tissue differentiation and maturation of their functions, dystrophic and inflammatory changes in organs.
Intranatal period
The intranatal period is calculated from the time of the appearance of regular labor pains until the moment of ligation of the umbilical cord. Usually it is from 6 to 18 hours. After tying the umbilical cord,
extrauterine stage, or childhood itself. Taking into account the direct dependence of the level of infant mortality, development and health of the fetus and newborn on the course of pregnancy and childbirth, as well as on the adaptive capabilities of the child to new living conditions, it is customary to combine the late fetal (fetal), intranatal and early neonatal periods into the perinatal - from the end of 27- th week of intrauterine development to the 7th day of extrauterine life.
EXTRAUTERINE STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
Neonatal period
The neonatal period (neonatal) begins from the moment the child is born and lasts 4 weeks.
The early neonatal period - the main period in the process of adaptation of the child to new living conditions - lasts from the moment of ligation of the umbilical cord until the end of the 7th day of life. The passage of the fetus through the natural birth canal causes birth stress with a consistent tension in the functional activity of the hormonal systems involved in the adaptation processes. In the first hours of life, the release of catecholamines and glucocorticoids increases, followed by a switch to "long-term protective measures" - an increase in the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and thyroxine (T 4). High concentration of catecholamines in cord blood at birth, it promotes the initiation of respiration, the formation of pulmonary function, and the cessation of fluid secretion by the lungs. With the first breath of a newborn, the respiratory organs begin to function. Balancing the pressure in the aorta and pulmonary artery leads to the cessation of blood flow through the ductus arteriosus and the flow of blood from the right atrium through the oval window to the left. There is a complete "inclusion" of the small circle of blood circulation; adequate breathing with effective gas exchange is established; the umbilical vessels become empty, and the child's nutrition becomes enteral (the preferred option is breast-feeding). During the first few days of life, a decrease in the initial body weight by 5-6% is noted, which is considered a physiological phenomenon. Immediately after birth, the kidneys take on homeostatic functions, the blood flow in them increases sharply due to a decrease in resistance in the renal vessels.
Physiological catarrh of the skin, conjugation jaundice, etc. are also referred to the conditions reflecting the child's adaptation to new living conditions (see the chapter "Borderline conditions"). The body temperature of a newborn is unstable, the energy requirement for its maintenance and motor activity is 55 kcal/kg/day.
Birth stress, restructuring of respiratory and circulatory functions, immaturity of the child's adaptive mechanisms are reflected in the metabolism. Metabolic processes in newborns follow an anaerobic, or glycolytic, pathway. If adequate oxygenation is not established, metabolic acidosis and hypoproteinemia may develop. The gas exchange of a newborn becomes the same as in an adult, the catabolic phase of the exchange is replaced by an anabolic one, an intensive increase in weight and body length begins, analyzers develop (primarily visual); conditioned reflexes and coordination of movements begin to form.
Due to the predominance of inhibitory processes in the central nervous system (CNS), the newborn sleeps most of the day. The child reacts to sound and auditory stimuli with an adjusting reaction. From the moment you open your eyes, i.e. from the first hours of a child's life, the visual channel of information transmission begins to function. An indicator of the perception of an object by a newborn is the movement of the eyeballs - tracking and fixing the gaze, which are established by the month of life.
Respiration, circulation, digestion and excretion are performed with maximum intensity: respiratory rate (RR) 40 per minute, heart rate (HR) 140-160 per minute, the number of urination 20-25 times a day. The first act of defecation occurs within 24 hours after birth. The stool in a newborn changes color from black-green (meconium) to yellow-brown. The frequency of bowel movements in the neonatal period corresponds to the frequency of feeding and the amount of food received, and averages 3-5 times a day.
The presence of circulating mother's hormones in the blood of a newborn may be accompanied by a sexual crisis (see the chapter "Borderline States"): in girls, a reaction from the uterus is noted - bloody menstrual discharge appears. Both girls and boys can have a reaction of the mammary glands (up to the secretion of colostrum).
By the 3-4th week of a child's life, the skin clears and becomes pink, the umbilical wound heals. Protection against many viral and some bacterial infections is provided by IgG, transmitted to the child from the mother. The function of own T-lymphocytes is somewhat reduced.
Diseases of the neonatal period are primarily due to adverse factors that act in utero or during childbirth. In this period, malformations, hereditary diseases, diseases caused by antigenic incompatibility of erythrocytes of the mother and fetus [hemolytic disease of the newborn-
nyh (HDN) for Rh (Rh) - or group (AB0) incompatibility], perinatal damage to the central nervous system of hypoxic, traumatic or infectious genesis, the consequences of intrauterine infection or infection during childbirth. In the first days of life, purulent-septic diseases (for example, pyoderma), bacterial and viral lesions may occur. respiratory tract and intestines. The ease of infection is due to the absence of secretory IgA in newborns and the low content of antibodies (AT) belonging to the class
IgM.
Breast period
The thoracic period lasts from the 29th-30th day until the end of the 1st year of life. The main processes of adaptation to extrauterine life are completed, rapid physical, motor and mental development begins. At the same time, the intensity of metabolic processes is very high with the continuing immaturity of the anatomical structures, the functional limitation of the respiratory apparatus and the gastrointestinal tract. Passive immunity to many childhood infectious diseases (measles, rubella, diphtheria, etc.), acquired in utero through the placenta and supported in utero by mother's milk, lasts for 3-4 months.
During the chest period, the length of the body of the child increases by 50%, and the weight more than triples. The relative energy requirement of children of this age is 3 times higher than that of an adult, and is covered by a significant amount of food per 1 kg of body weight. Therefore, rational feeding is so important.
The most significant processes of tissue differentiation occur in the nervous system. During the first year of life, motor functions improve. At 1-1.5 months, the child begins to hold his head, at 6-7 months - to sit, by the year - to walk independently. At the age of 6 months, milk teeth erupt, by the end of the first year of life there are usually eight of them. The psyche of the child develops just as intensively. Starting from the first month of life, the child fixes his eyes on bright objects, by the end of the 2nd month he follows the movement of the object, smiles. An important milestone in the functional maturation of the cortex hemispheres- 3 months By this time, a state of calm wakefulness is formed with the main α-rhythm characteristic of this state on the electroencephalogram (EEG), the transmission of information to the cerebral cortex and its processing are accelerated. After 2-3 months, a differentiated perception of objects appears, memorization, behavioral reactions are formed. One of the most important acquisitions by 6 months is the speech function, which is formed on the basis of developing mechanisms of perception, attention and emotional sphere.
child. The first sound reaction is a cry, signaling the functional state of the child (hunger, discomfort). From about 3 months, the child utters sounds, “hums”, begins to recognize loved ones. By the 4-6th month, cooing turns into babbling. At 6 months, the child repeats individual syllables (“pa”, “yes”, etc.), laughs out loud. By the end of the year, he pronounces the first words (his active dictionary may contain 10-15 words), fulfills simple requirements, understands the prohibition. For the normal physical and psychomotor development of an infant, the resistance of his body to infections and other adverse factors environment needed proper nutrition, rational mode, hardening, attentive care, affectionate communication. Natural feeding and timely preventive vaccinations are especially important for protection against infectious diseases.
Intensive growth, differentiation of organs and high intensity of metabolic processes become the background against which diseases such as hypotrophy, paratrophy, anemia, rickets, acute digestive disorders, dyspepsia, easily develop (especially with insufficient, one-sided, excessive nutrition and care errors). atopic dermatitis, recurrent obstructive syndrome. Passive immunity due to antibodies received from the mother gradually weakens, and in the second half of the first year of life, children can get measles, chickenpox and other childhood infectious diseases.
preschool period
The pre-preschool period (from 1 year to 3 years) is characterized by a gradual slowdown in the rate of weight gain and body length, the continued maturation of the nervous system, the expansion of conditioned reflex connections, the formation of a second signaling system, the formation of lymphoid tissue of the nasopharynx, and an increase in muscle mass. By the age of 2 years, the eruption of 20 milk teeth is completed. During this period, children actively come into contact with the outside world, are mobile, inquisitive, and when communicating with adults and older children, their speech improves. Vocabulary by 2 years is up to 300, by 3 years - up to 1500 words. By the end of the 3rd year, children speak in long phrases, reason, their speech is characterized by pronounced word creation (the use of modified sound forms of the word, inventing their own). Motor capabilities are rapidly expanding - from walking to running, climbing and jumping. Starting from a year and a half, children sleep during the day for about 3 hours, at night - 11 hours. During this period, through the game and observation of the actions of adults, work and household skills are taught. The child clearly manifests individual
dual character traits, so education becomes the main element of childcare. At this time, it is important to properly organize the child's regimen so as not to overload him with impressions and protect him from the negative effects of the environment. The main physiological systems have a greater degree of maturity: the respiratory rate becomes smaller and amounts to 25-35 per minute, heart rate 100-120 per minute, urination is arbitrary, stool 1-2 times a day. Acute indigestion, pneumonia, bronchitis, anemia often develop, but they are milder than in infants. Against the background of physiological hyperplasia of the lymphoid tissue, tonsillitis, adenoids, and lymphadenitis often develop. In connection with the expansion of the child's contacts with other children, acute respiratory viral infections (ARVI), acute intestinal infections(AII), whooping cough, rubella, chicken pox, measles, scarlet fever, etc.
Preschool
The preschool period (from 3 to 7 years) is characterized by the expansion of the child's contacts with the outside world. The increase in body weight slows down, the first physiological stretching in length occurs, and the length of the limbs noticeably increases. At the age of 5-6 years, the change of milk teeth to permanent ones begins, the child switches to the diet of an adult. The immune defense reaches a certain degree of maturity. At 3-4 years, a close interaction of visual perception and movements is preserved. Practical manipulations (grasping, feeling) are a necessary factor in visual recognition. From 4 to 7 years there is a rapid increase in the amount of attention. At this time, children usually start attending kindergarten, their intellect develops intensively, motor and labor skills become more complicated, fine coordinated movements appear. By the age of 5, children speak their native language correctly, memorize poems, and retell fairy tales. There are differences in the behavior, hobbies and games of boys and girls. Emotional manifestations become much more restrained. By the end of this period, the child is preparing to enter school.
Various parts of the endocrine system are successively activated. Hormones play the leading role during this period. thyroid gland and growth hormone (GH) from the pituitary gland. The maximum activity of the thyroid gland was detected at the age of 5.
The incidence of SARS and other infectious diseases. In connection with the increasing sensitization of the body, the proportion of chronic diseases, such as bronchial asthma, rheumatism, hemorrhagic vasculitis, nephritis, etc., increases. Lack of proper behavioral skills with increased mobility often leads to injuries.
Junior school age
Primary school age includes the period from 7 to 11 years. Structural differentiation of tissues is completed, there is a further increase in body weight and internal organs, gender differences appear: boys differ from girls in height, speed of maturation, physique. There is a complete replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones. Such motor skills as dexterity, speed, endurance develop; fine differentiated skills are successfully assimilated - writing, needlework. By the age of 12, the formation of the nervous system ends, the cerebral cortex is similar in structure to that of an adult. The physiological parameters of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems also approach those of adults. The development of higher nervous activity, metabolic processes in the brain are significantly enhanced, memory improves, intelligence increases, strong-willed qualities are developed. In this period, there is a change in social conditions (the beginning and transition to subject education at school), the requirements for adolescents increase, and self-esteem increases. By the end of primary school age (prepubertal period), as the brain matures structurally and functionally, the neurophysiological mechanisms that underlie higher mental processes improve, and the functional and adaptive capabilities of the child increase. After 8 years, a pronounced growth of the ovaries is noted, from the age of 10, the growth of the uterus, prostate and testicles increases, and qualitative changes occur in their structure and functions. The gradual development of the reproductive sphere begins. The frequency of infectious, gastrointestinal and allergic diseases remains high. Classes at school significantly limit the movement of schoolchildren, problems of posture disorders and visual impairment appear. Foci of chronic infection (caries, tonsillitis, cholecystitis) are often found.
senior school age
Senior school, or adolescence, age - the period from 12 to 17-18 years. It coincides with puberty. For a fairly short period of time, the reproductive system matures in boys and girls, its morphological and functional state reaches that in adults by the age of 17-18. In the pubertal period, intense sexual differentiation occurs, due to the activity of the endocrine glands. The activity of the pituitary-gonadal and pituitary-adrenal relationships, which regulate the development and formation of the sexual sphere, increases. On
The organization of brain activity is affected not only by the maturation of its own structures, but also by endocrine changes. This period is characterized by a rapid increase in body size, a sharp change in the function of the endocrine glands. Before the onset of puberty, the content of gonadotropins in the blood of girls and boys is low. The period from 1 year to the appearance of the first signs of puberty is regarded as the stage of sexual infantilism. However, a slight and gradual increase in the secretion of pituitary and gonadal hormones is indirect evidence of the maturation of diencephalic structures. The concentration of testosterone in the blood of boys aged 7-13 years is small, but increases significantly from the age of 15, with the stabilization of the hormone concentration by the age of 20. In parallel with the pubertal development of the larynx, a voice mutation occurs - an important sign indicating the degree of puberty of a young man. In the ovaries, germ cells mature and many hormones (estrogens, androgens, progesterone) are synthesized. Already at the age of 10-12, against the background of a low content of estrogen, on some days it is noted that it increases by 2-3 times. The closer the menarche, the more often such a short-term increase in estrogen excretion is observed. The average age of menarche is 12-13 years. At 16-17 years old, most girls have a regular menstrual-ovarian cycle. The increase in body length is especially pronounced during puberty, therefore, at the age of 12-14, girls often overtake boys in physical development. During the Growth Leap, around age 12, girls grow about 8 cm a year. For boys, such a “jump” happens later - about 14 years old, when they grow on average 10 cm per year. Significantly increased muscle strength and performance. Increasing motor and neuropsychic activity, an intensive increase in body weight and length require intense work of the endocrine glands, nervous system and metabolic processes, which dictates the need for additional nutrition. Accelerated physical and puberty does not always go hand in hand with intellectual development; physical maturation is faster and ends earlier.
In adolescence, they often choose a profession; this is a time for self-determination and personal development, a time for asserting gender identity and developing a sense of sexual conformity. Thinking becomes more independent, active, creative. The ability to self-sacrifice, devotion, trust appears.
Particular attention should be paid to the heart with a variety of morphological variants of its development, lability of the heart rate, imperfection of neurovegetative control. In that
period often meet functional disorders of the cardiovascular and autonomic nervous system ("youthful heart", "youthful hypertension", dyscirculatory disorders). Eating disorders (obesity, dystrophy) and gastrointestinal diseases (gastritis, duodenitis, peptic ulcer). With the onset of puberty, defects in the development of the genital apparatus (dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, etc.) are revealed, infectious and allergic diseases, tuberculosis can become aggravated. Due to hormonal changes, deviations in the functioning of the endocrine apparatus (hypo- or hyperthyroidism, etc.) are possible. An imbalance of hormonal influences, a temporary decrease in the immune properties of the skin, an increased function of the sebaceous glands in both boys and girls are often accompanied by pustular skin diseases, especially on the face. This is a difficult period of psychological development, striving for self-affirmation, often with a dramatic revision of the entire system of life values, attitudes towards oneself, parents and peers.
To determine the biological age, signs reflecting the process of biological maturation are used. In all periods of childhood, there are distinctive features of body proportions and characteristics of physical and psychomotor development. In infants and preschool children, the biological age can be judged by the disappearance of congenital unconditioned and the appearance of conditioned reflexes, the eruption of milk teeth and the formation of ossification nuclei, the development of motor skills and speech. IN preschool age an important sign of maturity is the appearance of permanent teeth, and in children of primary and senior school age - the development of secondary sexual characteristics, intelligence, physical performance.
The physical development of a person is a complex of morphological and functional properties of the body that determine the shape, size, body weight and its structural and mechanical qualities.
Introduction
Signs of physical development are variable. The physical development of a person is the result of the influence of hereditary factors (genotype) and environmental factors, and for a person - the whole complex of social conditions ( phenotype). With age, the value of heredity decreases, the leading role passes to individually acquired features.
The physical development of children and adolescents is associated with growth. Each age period - infancy, childhood, adolescence and youth - is characterized by specific features of the growth of individual parts of the body. In each age period, the child's body has a number of characteristic features that are unique to this age. Between the body of a child and an adult, there are not only quantitative differences (body size, weight), but, above all, qualitative ones.
Currently, there is an acceleration of human physical development. This phenomenon is called acceleration.
In my work, I will try to briefly characterize each of the main stages of individual development of a person.
The main stages of individual human development
When studying human development, its individual and age characteristics in anatomy and other disciplines, they are guided by scientifically based data on age periodization. The scheme of age periodization of human development, taking into account anatomical, physiological, and social factors, was adopted at the VII Conference on Problems of Age Morphology, Physiology, and Biochemistry (1965). It distinguishes twelve age periods (Table 1). Table 1
Individual development, or development in ontogeny, occurs in all periods of life - from conception to death. In human ontogenesis, two periods are distinguished: before birth (intrauterine, prenatal - from the Greek natos - born) and after birth (extrauterine, postnatal).
Prenatal ontogeny
To understand the individual structural features of the human body, it is necessary to get acquainted with the development of the human body in the prenatal period. The fact is that each person has his own individual characteristics of external appearance and internal structure, the presence of which is determined by two factors. This is heredity, traits inherited from parents, as well as the result of the influence of the external environment in which a person grows, develops, studies, works.
In the intrauterine period, from conception to birth, for 280 days (9 calendar months), the embryo (embryo) is located in the mother's body (from the moment of fertilization to birth). During the first 8 weeks, the main processes of the formation of organs and body parts take place. This period is called the embryonic (embryonic), and the body of the future person is the embryo (embryo). From the age of 9 weeks, when the main external human features begin to appear, the body is called a fetus, and the period is fetal (fetal - from the Greek fetus - fetus).
The development of a new organism begins with the process of fertilization (fusion of sperm and egg), which usually occurs in the fallopian tube. Merged sex cells form a qualitatively new unicellular embryo - a zygote that has all the properties of both germ cells. From this moment, the development of a new (daughter) organism begins.
The optimal conditions for the interaction of sperm and egg are usually created within 12 hours after ovulation. The union of the nucleus of the spermatozoon with the nucleus of the ovum leads to the formation in a unicellular organism (zygote) of a diploid set of chromosomes characteristic of a human being (46). The sex of the unborn child is determined by the combination of chromosomes in the zygote and depends on the father's sex chromosomes. If the egg is fertilized by a sperm with the sex chromosome X, then two X chromosomes appear in the resulting diploid set of chromosomes, which are characteristic of the female body. When fertilized by a sperm with a Y sex chromosome, a combination of XY sex chromosomes is formed in the zygote, which is characteristic of the male body.
The first week of embryo development is the period of crushing (division) of the zygote into daughter cells (Fig. 1). Immediately after fertilization, during the first 3-4 days, the zygote divides and simultaneously moves along the fallopian tube towards the uterine cavity. As a result of division of the zygote, a multicellular vesicle is formed - a blastula with a cavity inside (from the Greek blastula - sprout). The walls of this vesicle are formed by two types of cells: large and small. From the outer layer of small cells, the walls of the vesicle are formed - the trophoblast. Subsequently, trophoblast cells form the outer layer of the membranes of the embryo. Larger dark cells (blastomeres) form a cluster - an embryoblast (embryonic nodule, embryo rudiment), which is located medially from the trophoblast. From this accumulation of cells (embryoblast), the embryo and adjacent extraembryonic structures (except for the trophoblast) develop.
Fig.1. 
A - fertilization: 1 - sperm; 2 - egg; B; C - crushing of the zygote, D - morublastula: 1 - embryoblast; 2 - trophoblast; D - blastocyst: 1-embryoblast; 2 - trophoblast; 3 - amnion cavity; E - blastocyst: 1-embryoblast; 2-amnion cavity; 3 - blastocoel; 4 - embryonic endoderm; 5-amnionitic epithelium - F - I: 1 - ectoderm; 2 - endoderm; 3 - mesoderm.
A small amount of fluid accumulates between the surface layer (trophoblast) and the germinal nodule. By the end of the 1st week of development (6-7th day of pregnancy), the embryo enters the uterus and is introduced (implanted) into its mucous membrane; implantation lasts about 40 hours. The surface cells of the embryo that form the vesicle, the trophoblast (from the Greek trophe - nutrition), secrete an enzyme that loosens the surface layer of the uterine mucosa, which is prepared for the introduction of the embryo into it. The emerging villi (outgrowths) of the trophoblast come into direct contact with the blood vessels of the mother's body. Numerous trophoblast villi increase the surface of its contact with the tissues of the uterine mucosa. The trophoblast turns into a nutrient membrane of the embryo, which is called the villous membrane (chorion). At first, the chorion has villi on all sides, then these villi remain only on the side facing the wall of the uterus. In this place, a new organ develops from the chorion and the uterine mucosa adjacent to it - the placenta (children's place). The placenta is the organ that connects the mother's body with the fetus and provides its nutrition.
The second week of the life of the embryo is the stage when the embryoblast cells are divided into two layers (two plates), from which two vesicles are formed (Fig. 2). From the outer layer of cells adjacent to the trophoblast, an ectoblastic (amniotic) vesicle is formed. An endoblastic (yolk) vesicle is formed from the inner layer of cells (the rudiment of the embryo, the embryoblast). The bookmark ("body") of the embryo is located where the amniotic vesicle is in contact with the yolk sac. During this period, the embryo is a two-layer shield, consisting of two sheets: the outer germinal (ectoderm) and the inner germinal (endoderm).
Fig.2. The position of the embryo and germinal membranes different stages human development: A - 2-3 weeks; B - 4 weeks: 1 - amnion cavity; 2 - the body of the embryo; 3 - yolk sac; 4 - tropholast; B - 6 weeks; D - fetus 4-5 months: 1 - body of the embryo (fetus); 2 - amnion; 3 - yolk sac; 4 - chorion; 5 - umbilical cord.
The ectoderm faces the amniotic sac, and the endoderm is adjacent to the yolk sac. At this stage, the surfaces of the embryo can be determined. The dorsal surface is adjacent to the amniotic vesicle, and the ventral surface to the yolk sac. The trophoblast cavity around the amniotic and vitelline vesicles is loosely filled with strands of cells of the extraembryonic mesenchyme. By the end of the 2nd week, the length of the embryo is only 1.5 mm. During this period, the germinal shield thickens in its posterior (caudal) part. Here, in the future, axial organs (chord, neural tube) begin to develop.
The third week of the life of the embryo is the period of formation of a three-layer shield (embryo). The cells of the outer, ectodermal plate of the germinal shield are displaced towards its posterior end. As a result, a cell ridge (primary streak) is formed, which is elongated in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the embryo. In the head (front) part of the primary strip, cells grow and multiply faster, resulting in a slight elevation - the primary nodule (Hensen's nodule). The location of the primary nodule indicates the cranial (head end) of the body of the embryo.
Rapidly multiplying, the cells of the primary streak and the primary nodule grow to the sides between the ectoderm and endoderm, thus forming the median germ layer - the mesoderm. The cells of the mesoderm located between the sheets of the shield are called the intraembryonic mesoderm, and those that have moved beyond it are called the extraembryonic mesoderm.
Part of the mesoderm cells within the primary nodule grows especially actively forward from the head and tail ends of the embryo, penetrates between the outer and inner sheets and forms a cellular strand - the dorsal string (chord). At the end of the 3rd week of development, active cell growth occurs in the anterior part of the outer germ layer - the neural plate is formed. This plate soon bends, forming a longitudinal groove - the neural groove. The edges of the groove thicken, approach and fuse with each other, closing the neural groove into the neural tube. In the future, the entire nervous system develops from the neural tube. The ectoderm closes over the formed neural tube and loses contact with it.
In the same period, a finger-like outgrowth, the alantois, penetrates from the back of the endodermal plate of the germinal shield into the extra-embryonic mesenchyme (the so-called amniotic stalk), which does not perform certain functions in humans. In the course of the allantois, blood umbilical (placental) vessels sprout from the embryo to the chorion villi. A cord containing blood vessels that connects the embryo to the extra-embryonic membranes (placenta) forms the ventral stalk.
Thus, by the end of the 3rd week of development, the human embryo looks like a three-layer plate, or a three-layer shield. In the region of the outer germ layer, the neural tube is visible, and deeper - the dorsal string, i.e. axial organs of the human embryo appear. By the end of the third week of development, the length of the embryo is 2-3 mm.
The fourth week of life - the embryo, which has the form of a three-layer shield, begins to bend in the transverse and longitudinal directions. The embryonic shield becomes convex, and its edges are delimited from the amnion surrounding the embryo by a deep furrow - the trunk fold. The body of the embryo from a flat shield turns into a three-dimensional one, the ectoderm covers the body of the embryo from all sides.
From the ectoderm, the nervous system, the epidermis of the skin and its derivatives, the epithelial lining of the oral cavity, the anal part of the rectum, and the vagina are further formed. The mesoderm gives rise to internal organs (except endoderm derivatives), the cardiovascular system, the organs of the musculoskeletal system (bones, joints, muscles), and the skin itself.
The endoderm, which is inside the body of the human embryo, rolls up into a tube and forms the embryonic rudiment of the future intestine. The narrow opening connecting the embryonic intestine with the yolk sac later turns into the umbilical ring. From the endoderm, the epithelium and all the glands of the digestive system and respiratory tract are formed.
The embryonic (primary) intestine is initially closed in front and behind. In the anterior and posterior ends of the body of the embryo, invaginations of the ectoderm appear - the oral fossa (future oral cavity) and the anal (anal) fossa. Between the cavity of the primary intestine and the oral fossa there is a two-layer (ectoderm and endoderm) anterior (oropharyngeal) plate (membrane). Between the intestine and the anal fossa there is a cloacal (anal) plate (membrane), also two-layered. The anterior (oropharyngeal) membrane ruptures during the 4th week of development. At the 3rd month, the posterior (anal) membrane breaks.
As a result of bending, the body of the embryo is surrounded by the contents of the amnion - amniotic fluid, which acts as a protective environment that protects the embryo from damage, primarily mechanical (concussion).
The yolk sac lags behind in growth and at the 2nd month of intrauterine development looks like a small sac, and then it is completely reduced (disappears). The ventral stalk lengthens, becomes relatively thin and is later called the umbilical cord.
During the 4th week of development of the embryo, the differentiation of its mesoderm, which began on the 3rd week, continues. The dorsal part of the mesoderm, located on the sides of the chord, forms paired thickened protrusions - somites. Somites are segmented, i.e. divided into metameric regions. Therefore, the dorsal part of the mesoderm is called segmented. Segmentation of somites occurs gradually in the direction from front to back. On the 20th day of development, the 3rd pair of somites is formed, by the 30th day there are already 30 of them, and on the 35th day - 43-44 pairs. The ventral part of the mesoderm is not divided into segments. It forms two plates on each side (non-segmented part of the mesoderm). The medial (visceral) plate is adjacent to the endoderm (primary intestine) and is called the splanchnopleura. The lateral (outer) plate is adjacent to the wall of the body of the embryo, to the ectoderm, and is called the somatopleura.
The epithelial cover of the serous membranes (mesothelium), as well as the lamina propria of the serous membranes and the subserous base, develop from the splanchno- and somatopleura. The mesenchyme of the splanchnopleura also goes to the construction of all layers of the digestive tube, except for the epithelium and glands, which are formed from the endoderm. The space between the plates of the non-segmented part of the mesoderm turns into the body cavity of the embryo, which is subdivided into the peritoneal, pleural and pericardial cavities.
Fig.3. Cross section through the body of the embryo (diagram): 1 - neural tube; 2 - chord; 3 - aorta; 4 - sclerotome; 5 - myotome; 6 - dermatome; 7 - primary intestine; 8 - body cavity (as a whole); 9 - somatopleura; 10 - splanchnopleura.
The mesoderm on the border between the somites and the splanchnopleura forms nephrotomes (segmental legs), from which the tubules of the primary kidney, the sex glands, develop. From the dorsal part of the mesoderm - somites - three rudiments are formed. The anteromedial section of the somites (sclerotome) goes to the construction of skeletal tissue, giving rise to cartilage and bones of the axial skeleton - the spine. Lateral to it lies the myotome, from which the skeletal muscles develop. In the posterolateral part of the somite there is a site - the dermatome, from the tissue of which the connective tissue base of the skin is formed - the dermis.
In the head section on each side of the embryo from the ectoderm on the 4th week, the rudiments of the inner ear (first the auditory pits, then the auditory vesicles) and the future lens of the eye are formed. At the same time, the visceral sections of the head are rebuilt, which form the frontal and maxillary processes around the mouth bay. Behind (caudal) of these processes, the contours of the mandibular and sublingual (hyoid) visceral arches are visible.
Elevations are visible on the anterior surface of the torso of the embryo: cardiac, and behind it - hepatic tubercles. The recess between these tubercles indicates the place of formation of the transverse septum - one of the rudiments of the diaphragm. Caudal to the hepatic tubercle is the ventral stalk, which contains large blood vessels and connects the embryo to the placenta (umbilical cord). The length of the embryo by the end of the 4th week is 4-5 mm.
Fifth to eighth weeks
In the period from the 5th to the 8th week of the life of the embryo, the formation of organs (organogenesis) and tissues (histogenesis) continues. This is the time of early development of the heart and lungs, the complication of the structure of the intestinal tube, the formation of visceral arches, the formation of capsules of the sense organs. The neural tube completely closes and expands in the head region (the future brain). At the age of about 31-32 days (5th week), the length of the embryo is 7.5 mm. At the level of the lower cervical and 1st thoracic segments of the body, fin-like rudiments (buds) of the hands appear. By the 40th day, the rudiments of the legs are formed.
At the 6th week (parietal-coccygeal length of the embryo - 12 - 13 mm), the laying of the outer ear is noticeable, from the end of the 6-7th week - the laying of the fingers, and then the toes.
By the end of the 7th week (the length of the embryo is 19-20 mm), eyelids begin to form. Thanks to this, the eyes are outlined more clearly. On the 8th week (the length of the embryo is 28-30 mm), the laying of the organs of the embryo ends. From the 9th week, i.e. from the beginning of the 3rd month, the embryo (parietal-coccygeal length 39-41 mm) takes the form of a person and is called a fetus.
third to ninth months
Starting from three months and throughout the entire fetal period, further growth and development of the resulting organs and body parts occur. At the same time, the differentiation of the external genitalia begins. Nails are laid on the fingers. From the end of the 5th month (length 24.3 cm), eyebrows and eyelashes become noticeable. At the 7th month (length 37.1 cm), the eyelids open, fat begins to accumulate in the subcutaneous tissue. On the 10th month (length 51 cm) the fetus is born.
Critical periods of ontogeny a
In the process of individual development, there are critical periods when the sensitivity of the developing organism to the effects of damaging factors of the external and internal environment is increased. There are several critical periods of development. These most dangerous periods are:
1) the time of development of germ cells - ovogenesis and spermatogenesis;
2) the moment of fusion of germ cells - fertilization;
3) implantation of the embryo (4-8 days of embryogenesis);
4) formation of rudiments of axial organs (brain and spinal cord, spinal column, primary intestine) and formation of the placenta (3-8 weeks of development);
5) the stage of enhanced brain growth (15-20 weeks);
6) formation functional systems organism and differentiation of the genitourinary apparatus (20-24th week of the prenatal period);
7) the moment of the birth of the child and the neonatal period - the transition to extrauterine life; metabolic and functional adaptation;
8) the period of early and first childhood (2 years - 7 years), when the formation of relationships between organs, systems and apparatuses of organs ends;
9) adolescence (puberty - in boys from 13 to 16 years, in girls - from 12 to 15 years).
Simultaneously with the rapid growth of the organs of the reproductive system, emotional activity is activated.
Postnatal ontogeny. Neonatal period
Immediately after birth, there is a period called the neonatal period. The basis for this allocation is the fact that at this time the child is fed with colostrum for 8-10 days. Newborns in the initial period of adaptation to the conditions of extrauterine life are divided according to the level of maturity into full-term and premature. Intrauterine development of full-term babies lasts 39-40 weeks, premature babies - 28-38 weeks. When determining maturity, not only these terms are taken into account, but also the mass (weight) of the body at birth.
Newborns with a body weight of at least 2500 g (with a body length of at least 45 cm) are considered full-term, and newborns with a body weight of less than 2500 g are considered premature. In addition to weight and length, other dimensions are taken into account, for example, chest girth in relation to body length and head circumference in relation to chest circumference. It is believed that the girth of the chest at the level of the nipples should be more than 0.5 body length by 9-10 cm, and the girth of the head - more than the girth of the chest by no more than 1-2 cm.
Breast period
The next period - chest - lasts up to a year. The beginning of this period is associated with the transition to feeding "mature" milk. During the breast period, the greatest intensity of growth is observed, in comparison with all other periods of extrauterine life. Body length increases from birth to a year by 1.5 times, and body weight triples. From 6 months milk teeth begin to erupt. In infancy, uneven body growth is pronounced. In the first half of the year, babies grow faster than in the second. In each month of the first year of life, new indicators of development appear. In the first month, the child begins to smile in response to the appeal of adults, at 4 months. persistently tries to stand on legs (with support), at 6 months. tries to crawl on all fours, at 8 - makes attempts to walk, by the year the child usually walks.
early childhood period
The period of early childhood lasts from 1 year to 4 years. At the end of the second year of life, teething ends. After 2 years, the absolute and relative values of annual body size increases rapidly decrease.
First childhood period
From the age of 4, the period of the first childhood begins, which ends at the age of 7. Starting from the age of 6, the first permanent teeth appear: the first molar (large molar) and the medial incisor on the lower jaw.
The age from 1 year to 7 years is also called the period of neutral childhood, since boys and girls almost do not differ from each other in size and body shape.
second childhood period
The period of second childhood lasts for boys from 8 to 12 years, for girls - from 8 to 11 years. During this period, sex differences in the size and shape of the body are revealed, and an increased growth of the body in length begins. Growth rates in girls are higher than in boys, since puberty in girls begins on average two years earlier. Increased secretion of sex hormones (especially in girls) causes the development of secondary sexual characteristics. The sequence of appearance of secondary sexual characteristics is fairly constant. In girls, the mammary glands first form, then pubic hair appears, then in the armpits. The uterus and vagina develop simultaneously with the formation of the mammary glands. To a much lesser extent, the process of puberty is expressed in boys. Only towards the end of this period do they begin to accelerate the growth of the testicles, scrotum, and then the penis.
Teenage years
The next period - adolescence - is also called puberty, or puberty. It continues in boys from 13 to 16 years old, in girls - from 12 to 15 years old. At this time, there is a further increase in growth rates - the puberty jump, which applies to all body sizes. The greatest increase in body length in girls occurs between 11 and 12 years, in body weight - between 12 and 13 years. In boys, an increase in length is observed between 13 and 14 years, and an increase in body weight between 14 and 15 years. The growth rate of body length is especially high in boys, as a result of which at the age of 13.5-14 they overtake girls in body length. Due to the increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary system, secondary sexual characteristics are formed. In girls, the development of the mammary glands continues, there is growth of hair on the pubis and in the armpits. The most clear indicator of puberty of the female body is the first menstruation.
In adolescence, there is an intensive puberty of boys. By the age of 13, their voice changes (mutates) and pubic hair appears, and at 14, hair appears in the armpits. At the age of 14-15, boys have their first wet dreams (involuntary eruptions of sperm).
In boys, compared with girls, the pubertal period is longer and the pubertal growth spurt is more pronounced.
adolescence
Adolescence lasts for boys from 18 to 21 years old, and for girls - from 17 to 20 years old. During this period, the growth process and the formation of the body basically end, and all the main dimensional features of the body reach the definitive (final) value.
In adolescence, the formation of the reproductive system and the maturation of the reproductive function are completed. The ovulatory cycles in a woman, the rhythm of testosterone secretion and the production of mature sperm in a man are finally established.
Mature, elderly, senile age
In adulthood, the shape and structure of the body change little. Between 30 and 50 years, body length remains constant, and then begins to decrease. In the elderly and senile age, gradual involutive changes in the body occur.
Individual differences in the process of growth and development
Individual differences in the process of growth and development can vary widely. The existence of individual fluctuations in the processes of growth and development served as the basis for the introduction of such a concept as biological age, or developmental age (as opposed to passport age).
The main criteria for biological age are:
1) skeletal maturity - (the order and timing of ossification of the skeleton);
2) dental maturity - (terms of eruption of milk and permanent teeth);
3) the degree of development of secondary sexual characteristics. For each of these biological age criteria - "external" (skin), "dental" and "bone" - rating scales and normative tables have been developed to determine the chronological (passport) age by morphological features.
Factors affecting individual development
Factors affecting individual development (ontogenesis) are divided into hereditary and environmental (influence of the external environment).
The degree of hereditary (genetic) influence is not the same at different stages of growth and development. The influence of hereditary factors on the total body size increases from the period of the newborn (tm) to the second childhood, with a subsequent weakening by the age of 12-15.
The influence of environmental factors on the processes of morphofunctional maturation of the body is clearly seen in the example of the timing of menarche (menstruation). Studies of growth processes in children and adolescents in various geographical areas have shown that climatic factors have almost no effect on growth and development, if living conditions are not extreme. Adaptation to extreme conditions causes such a profound restructuring of the functioning of the whole organism that it cannot but affect the growth processes.
Dimensions and proportions, body weight
Among the body sizes, total (from French total - whole) and partial (from Latin pars - part) are distinguished. Total (general) body dimensions are the main indicators of human physical development. These include body length and weight, as well as chest circumference. Partial (partial) dimensions of the body are terms of the total size and characterize the size of individual parts of the body.
Body sizes are determined during anthropometric surveys of various contingents of the population.
Most anthropometric indicators have significant individual fluctuations. Table 2 shows some average anthropometric indicators in postnatal ontogeny.
The proportions of the body depend on the age and gender of the person (Fig. 4). Body length and its age-related changes, as a rule, are individual. So, for example, differences in the body length of newborns during normal pregnancy are in the range of 49-54 cm. The largest increase in the body length of children is observed in the first year of life and averages 23.5 cm. In the period from 1 to 10 years, this indicator gradually decreases by an average of 10.5 - 5 cm per year. From the age of 9, sex differences in growth rate begin to appear. Body weight from the first days of life until about 25 years of age in most people gradually increases, and then remains unchanged.
Fig. 4 Changes in the proportions of body parts in the process of human growth.
KM - the middle line. The numbers on the right show the ratio of body parts in children and adults, the numbers below show the age.
table 2
Length, mass and body surface area in postiatal orthogenesis
Table 2
After the age of 60, body weight usually begins to gradually decrease, mainly as a result of atrophic changes in tissues and a decrease in their water content. The total body weight consists of a number of components: the mass of the skeleton, muscles, fatty tissue, internal organs and skin. In men average weight body 52-75 kg, for women - 47-70 kg.
In the elderly and senile age, characteristic changes are observed not only in the size and weight of the body, but also in its structure; these changes are studied by the special science of gerontology (gerontos - old man). It should be emphasized that an active lifestyle, regular physical education slows down the aging process.
Acceleration
It should be noted that over the past 100-150 years there has been a noticeable acceleration in the somatic development and physiological maturation of children and adolescents - acceleration (from Latin acceleratio - acceleration). Another term for the same trend is "epochal shift". Acceleration is characterized by a complex set of interrelated morphological, physiological, and mental phenomena. To date, morphological indicators of acceleration have been determined.
Thus, the length of the body of children at birth over the past 100-150 years has increased by an average of 0.5-1 cm, and the weight - by 100-300 g. During this time, the mass of the placenta in the mother has also increased. There is also an earlier alignment of the ratios of chest and head girths (between the 2nd and 3rd month of life). Modern one-year-old children are 5 cm longer and 1.5-2 kg heavier than their peers in the 19th century.
The body length of preschool children over the past 100 years has increased by 10-12 cm, and for schoolchildren - by 10-15 cm.
In addition to an increase in body length and weight, acceleration is characterized by an increase in the size of individual parts of the body (segments of limbs, thickness of skin-fat folds, etc.). Thus, the increase in chest girth in relation to the increase in body length was small. The onset of puberty in modern adolescents occurs about two years earlier. The acceleration of development also affected motor functions. Modern teenagers run faster, jump further from a place, pull themselves up on the crossbar (horizontal bar) more times.
Epochal shift (acceleration) affects all stages human life, from birth to death. For example, the length of the body of adults also increases, but to a lesser extent than in children and adolescents. So, at the age of 20-25 years, the body length of men increased by an average of 8 cm.
Acceleration covers the entire body, affecting the size of the body, the growth of organs and bones, the maturation of the sex glands and the skeleton. In men, changes in the process of acceleration are more pronounced than in women.
Men and women are distinguished by sexual characteristics. This primary signs(genital organs) and secondary (for example, the development of pubic hair, the development of the mammary glands, a change in voice, etc.), as well as body features, proportions of body parts.
The proportions of the human body are calculated as a percentage according to the measurement of the longitudinal and transverse dimensions between the boundary points set on various protrusions of the skeleton.
The harmony of body proportions is one of the criteria for assessing the state of human health. With disproportion in the structure of the body, one can think of a violation of growth processes and the causes that caused it (endocrine, chromosomal, etc.). Based on the calculation of body proportions in anatomy, three main types of human physique are distinguished: mesomorphic, brachymorphic, dolichomorphic. The mesomorphic body type (normosthenics) includes people whose anatomical features approach the average parameters of the norm (taking into account age, gender, etc.). In people of the brachymorphic body type (hypersthenics), transverse dimensions predominate, muscles are well developed, they are not very tall. The heart is located transversely due to the high-standing diaphragm. In hypersthenics, the lungs are shorter and wider, the loops of the small intestine are located mainly horizontally. Persons of dolichomorphic body type (asthenics) are characterized by a predominance of longitudinal dimensions, have relatively longer limbs, poorly developed muscles and a thin layer of subcutaneous fat, and narrow bones. Their diaphragm is lower, so the lungs are longer, and the heart is located almost vertically. Table 3 shows the relative sizes of body parts in people of different body types.
Table 3
Conclusion
What can be the conclusion of the above?
Human growth is uneven. Each part of the body, each organ develops according to its own program. If we compare the growth and development of each of them with a long-distance runner, it is not difficult to find that during this many years of "running" the leader of the competition is constantly changing. In the first month of embryonic development, the head is in the lead. In a two-month-old fetus, the head is larger than the body. This is understandable: the brain is located in the head, and it is the most important organ that coordinates and organizes the complex work of organs and systems. The development of the heart, blood vessels and liver also begins early.
In a newborn baby, the head reaches half of its final size. Up to 5-7 years of age, there is a rapid increase in body weight and length. At the same time, the arms, legs and torso grow alternately: first, the arms, then the legs, then the torso. The size of the head during this period increases slowly.
At primary school age from 7 to 10 years, growth is slower. If earlier arms and legs grew more quickly, now the torso becomes the leader. It grows evenly, so that the proportions of the body are not violated.
In adolescence, the hands grow so intensively that the body does not have time to adapt to their new size, hence some clumsiness and sweeping movements. After that, the legs begin to grow. Only when they reach their final size does the torso join in the growth. First, it grows in height, and only then begins to grow in width. During this period, the physique of a person is finally formed.
If we compare the parts of the body of a newborn and an adult, it turns out that the size of the head has grown only twice, the torso and arms have become three times larger, while the length of the legs has increased five times.
An important indicator of the development of the body is the appearance of menstruation in girls and wet dreams in boys, it indicates the onset of biological maturity.
Along with the growth of the body is its development. The growth and development of a person in different people occur at different times, so anatomists, doctors, physiologists distinguish between calendar age and biological age. Calendar age is calculated from the date of birth, biological age reflects the degree of physical development of the subject. The last one is different for each person. It may happen that people who are at the same biological age may differ by 2-3 years on the calendar, and this is completely normal. Girls tend to develop faster.
Literature
1. Medical scientific and educational journal No. 28 [October 2005]. Section - Lectures. Title of the work - PERIODS OF CHILDHOOD. Author - P.D. Vaganov
2. Vygotsky L.S. Collected works in 6 volumes. Volume 4
3. Vygotsky L.S. article "Problems of age periodization of child development"
4. Obukhova L.F. textbook "Children's (age) psychology". Fundamental and clinical physiology / Ed.A.G. Kamkin and A.A. Kamensky. - M.: "Academy", 2004.
5. Schmidt R., Tews G. Human Physiology: Per. from English. - M.: Mir, 1996.
6. Dragomilov A.G., Mash R.D. Biology: Man. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Ventana-Graf, 2004.
7. Sapin. M.R., Bryksina Z.G. Anatomy and physiology of children and adolescents: Proc. allowance for students. ped. universities. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002.
8. Chusov Yu.N. Human Physiology: Proc. allowance for ped. Schools (special No. 1910). - M.: Enlightenment, 1981.
9. Encyclopedia "Round the World"
10. "Rusmedservice"
11. Encyclopedia "Wikipedia"
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First month
What does he already know?- Distinguishes different colors,
- Distinguishes the sounds
- Able to stop looking at a slowly moving object,
- Tries to raise the head in the prone position.
- Create a calm and welcoming environment
- More to be around at a time when the baby is not sleeping,
- Try to catch his eye, talk,
- Children with whom they communicate a lot, by the end of 4 weeks of life, in response, they can make various sounds, that is, they make contact.
Contact with the aquatic environment is very important for a harmonious and fast child development- in order for the child not to be afraid of water immediately, it should be lowered into the bath very carefully. Useful joint bathing with mom or dad. You can arrange for the baby to ride "down the hill" and gently twist it over the entire area of \u200b\u200bthe bath. Next, you can try to master the repulsion of the legs from the walls of the bath. A very pleasant activity is walking in the water. The baby's body should be slightly tilted forward, directed and helped.
To stimulate the baby's organs of vision, you should take a colored rattle in your hand, bring it to a distance of 60 cm from the baby's eyes, hold it until your eyes focus on the object and slowly move it from side to side with an amplitude of up to 7 centimeters.
To develop hearing, the same exercise should be done with toys that emit various ( pleasant) sounds.
Second month
What does he already know?- Smile in response to the appearance or voice of an adult,
- Turn towards the sound
- Focus on a moving object
- Pronounce vowel sounds clearly
- Roll from side to back.
- It is very useful to look into the eyes of the child, giving the process a playful form,
- Toys should be hung at a height of 50 cm from the eyes of the child,
- Covers with different textures should be laid on the changing table and the baby should be laid out on them. This procedure replaces a kind of massage,
- If there is no muscle hypertonicity, you can take tiny bottles, pour some water into them and gently tie them to your legs and arms with soft rubber bands. It turns out a kind of dumbbells. Little by little, you can increase the amount of water in the bottles.
You can use cylinders with balls.
To develop hearing, take a bell so that the baby does not see it, ring it several times and look at the reaction. The distance between the bell and the baby's body should be about 70 cm.
You can hang a bell above the bed on a horizontal ribbon. Moving it slowly, you should observe how the baby's eyes move.
Such exercises can be repeated twice a day for three to four days in a row, after which 7 days of rest, to consolidate the result, exercise every 3 to 7 days.
third month
What does he already know?- Distinguishes the faces of loved ones
- In response to the appeal of adults, he hums,
- Knows how to express his dissatisfaction with whims,
- Holds the object in the pen and drags it into the mouth, the fingers straighten, the fists open,
- From the back turns to the side,
- He raises his head and can twist it.
- At this stage of development, the child smiles more often and cries less, and, according to scientists, such crumbs also have different smiles,
- Show different parts of the body and name them,
- Sing rhymes, songs to the child,
- Making faces is very popular with children, and they are always happy to try to imitate.
First games
1.
Hide and Seek. Cover your face with a diaper, ask the baby to find himself. Then cover it and also ask to search. Be sure to praise for any success. 2. Use objects with different sounds in games, move them around the baby, commenting on the movement: a toy on the right, on the left.
3. Repeat after the child the syllables that he pronounces.
4. Hang a ring with bells attached to it over the crib at such a distance that the baby can reach it. This will help you learn not only to purposefully reach for an object, but also to defeat muscle hypertonicity.
5. Those children who have not yet fully opened their palms should massage their fingers, while telling nursery rhymes.
fourth month
What does he already know?- Not only distinguishes the faces of others, but prefers mom,
- Distinguishes the voices of loved ones
- The hanging object is held by both one and both hands,
- Lying on your back, slightly raises the upper body,
- Preference for certain toys
- "Helps" to hold the bottle during feeding.
- Learning to roll over. To do this, a very attractive object should be placed on the side of the baby a little further than he can reach the object. In order to make it more interesting for the child to stretch, you can attach a small bell to the handle,
- To develop sensory skills, make several flat pads filled with foam rubber and sheathed with various materials that can be placed under the palms of a baby lying on his stomach. Buttons of different sizes can be sewn onto the pads, pad research should be carried out together with mom or dad,
- Let the baby feel the ropes with knots tied to them, smooth ribbons, try to pull the rope out of the child’s hands,
- You can widely introduce various nursery rhymes into use, for example, put the baby on the back, bend the legs and say " Pushers - horns, op. Changelings!"Or pull the baby's legs, saying:" Let's go, let's go for the salt, for the salt»,
- You can already start reading short stories and poems to your baby. Only this should be done as emotionally, with feeling as possible. Monotonous reading will not be interesting to the baby.
Fifth month
What does he already know?- Look at large pictures, especially those depicting faces,
- Pulls, holds and throws toys
- May be interested in the subject for 5 minutes,
- Responding to strangers
- Able to rest on his hands, lying on his stomach.
- The main skill most developed during this period is grasping. It is on him that the emphasis should be placed in the classroom. You can change the temperature of objects ( slightly warmer or colder). In addition, the baby learns to throw objects by opening his fingers,
- Above the crib, plastic rings or a small horizontal bar should be strengthened, the child will pull himself up, holding on to them. This perfectly strengthens not only the arms, but also the back,
- This is a period of mastering your own body, the baby feels himself with interest. You can help him. You should not punish the baby for too long exploring the genitals by touch. This behavior may indicate physical discomfort ( e.g. baby cream), to boredom and lack of attention. No need to spank on the handles, as this will only draw the attention of the child to this area,
- In games with a baby, a series of repetitive movements should be used in order to relax the muscles, get rid of hypertonicity ( if he still exists). You can shake the baby's head from side to side: watch, knead the dough - slap on the back, tummy, arms and legs. Bend and unbend the legs, while saying: " motorboat-motorboat is barely crawling, motorboat-motorboat, speed up! Motorboat-motorboat, full speed ahead!»
- The favorite game of children of this age is “coo-coo”. You can cover your baby's eyes with your palms or your own, cover your face with a diaper.
sixth month
What does he already know?- Tries to imitate sounds
- Trying to get up with support
- Picks up an object that he throws himself,
- Transfers an object from hand to hand
- Creeps up to an object located at a distance of half a meter.
- Children should not be punished for objects thrown out of the crib. This is an important point in development. It is better to tie them with twine to the side, and he himself will drag the toys back,
- It's time to release the child into the "big world": from the playpen to a trip around the apartment. But first, all potential dangers should be removed: wires, sharp and fragile objects, medicines,
- This is the feeding period. The most important stage in the development of the child. He is already interested in adult food. But the introduction of complementary foods should be done very carefully and under the guidance of a pediatrician.
- While moving around the house with a baby in her arms, the child’s palm should touch all the objects that are on the way. The same can be done on the street. Since touch still plays a huge role in familiarizing the baby with the world around him, you should often change the textures of the surfaces around him. In this sense, patchwork quilts are ideal. They combine a lot of textures or special educational rugs,
- To train the fingers and hands, the following games are used: chicken pecking at the grain"- fingers fold with a beak and bale on the surface," paint the table"- the hand imitates the process of painting the surface, moving in different directions. First, you should drive the baby's hands, over time, he will try to repeat the movements himself.
seventh month
What does he already know?
- Understands some commonly used words
- Drinks from a glass and eats from a spoon
- Gets scared when mom is out of sight
- Holding on to a support, he walks and stands confidently enough,
- Rolls over from back to tummy and vice versa
- Ability to fit small objects into larger ones
- Plays simple games like " Ladushki».
How to develop it?
- During this period, you can begin to accustom the child to the concept of "no." But there should not be too many prohibitions; for this age, three forbidden things are enough. If there are more prohibitions, the child usually crosses out this word from the zone of his attention,
- The development of the child completely allows him to get his finger into the socket or put the wire in his mouth. Therefore, at this stage and henceforth, special attention should be paid to its environment and its safety,
- At this age, it is already quite possible to feed the baby with a spoon and give him slices of solid vegetables and fruits.
- The period of appearance of the so-called baby talk ( bi-bi, p-pi and so on), as well as the appearance of the first gestures. In sign language, you can focus your attention. According to some child psychologists, children who begin to “speak” with their parents in this language also learn oral speech easier and earlier. You can use the simplest gestures: come to me, bye, eat, sleep.
- Of the finger games are more popular " topalki" And " knockers". For example: " stomped in the field, horses stomped (you need to stomp slowly), dust flies across the field from the clatter of hooves» ( intensify the stomp).
- For the development of speech, you should repeat simple sounds and syllables to the baby. This should be done by leaning forward, very clearly and separately. For all successes and attempts to repeat syllables, the baby should be praised.
eighth month
What does he already know?- Responds to simple requests such as give me the ball,
- Enjoys simple games
- Runs very well on all fours and can walk with support,
- Sitting confidently
- Bites off soft pieces of food, eats not only grated soups and cereals, but also more structured food,
- Frightened by loud and sudden noises.
- The baby has the first fears and the task of parents is to competently acquaint him with the outside world, household appliances,
- For good physical development, it is very important to crawl. Each kid does this in his own way: some on all fours, some sideways or on the ass. Crawling strengthens the child's muscles and prepares him for walking,
- For the first attempts to walk, it is better to use special aids ( suspender),
- This is the period when you can try to introduce the child to the potty. Although many pediatricians recommend delaying dating until a year and a half,
- To strengthen the muscles of the back and body: put the child in the bath on his stomach, slowly draw water. This will encourage the child to get up on all fours. Exercise requires constant monitoring by parents, as the child may choke. Effective for lazy people who do not want to get up and crawl on their own,
- Walking on hands. An adult holds the baby by the legs, he rises on the arms. You can rock the child a little forward and backward.
ninth month
What does he already know?- The babble gradually turns into more complex and prolonged sounds,
- Can distinguish and show different parts of the body and face in himself, as well as in toys and parents,
- Crumple and tear leaves, plasticine,
- Flip through a cardboard book
- Gets up without holding on to anything
- He remembers perfectly well where something forbidden and very interesting lies and tries to get, for example, to mobile phone or keys.
- You can give the baby to dig with handles in beans, peas or flour under the supervision of parents. It is also useful to transfer nuts and pebbles from one container to another. For sleeping, you can give the baby a spoon or scoop,
- You can start teaching your baby to take off his sock or hat, as well as wash himself and help with the housework,
- It is necessary to play with the child. If mom and dad are not interested in the game, then the baby will be indifferent to it, will not be interested. You can play catch-up, crackers ( clapping hands). Even going to bed can turn into an exciting game if you take turns putting your mouth, nose, eyes, ears, and so on. In the same way, you can wake up
- You can gradually introduce drawing with crayons, appliqué. Children love to draw with their fingers for this there are special finger paints that are safe for kids).
ten months
What does he already know?- Listens carefully to the conversations of adults, understands when they are talking about him,
- Pays more attention to small toys and objects than to large ones,
- Can use one object to get another,
- Interested in peers
- Rolls a ball, cars, throws objects quite consciously,
- Tries to imitate adults
- Interested in what's inside the toys,
- He can sculpt pieces of plasticine on cardboard, smearing with his finger, and scratching with chalk.
How to develop it?
- It's time to teach the child to climb on low sofas and get off them,
- The child develops favorite activities, such as drawing or playing with musical toys. Based on them, you can come up with new fun for him,
- It is necessary to visit playgrounds where the child will observe other children and sometimes even try to interact with them,
- It is already possible to actively introduce games for the development of fine motor skills into everyday life: shifting matches from a box or into a box, laying out drawings from small objects, unscrewing lids, finger painting, classes with ribbons and twine, during such games it is important that both handles are involved, so that both hemispheres develop harmoniously,
- A round dance together with mom or three with a teddy bear is the first collective game of a child. It is better to dance in front of a mirror so that the baby can watch himself from the side. At first, it will be very difficult to lead a round dance, gradually the baby will learn, and it will be possible to complicate the task and introduce new movements.
eleven months
What does he already know?- Tries to name animals and birds by the sounds they make: woof-woof, qua-qua,
- Shakes head in denial, nods in agreement
- Uses simple gestures to say goodbye
- Repeats any manipulation in order to learn how to perform it better,
- Learning to walk
- Hanging on the bar for almost 60 seconds,
- Independently climbs 2 - 3 steps of the ladder,
- Says the first words.
During this period, speech classes are very important, increasing the child's passive vocabulary.
- You can teach your baby to throw away the candy wrapper in the trash or bring various little things at the request. Such cooperation will bring a lot of positive emotions to both parents and the child,
- Children's toys now interest the child less than objects from "adult" life, this interest should be encouraged, and dangerous or valuable objects should be removed from the child's field of vision,
- The independence of the baby should be encouraged, giving him the opportunity to help make purchases in the store, dress himself ( socks and slippers are quite real), eat,
- The child needs to communicate with peers. At first, an hour of walking in the park or in the yard in the company of other children is enough. During such walks, children should be kept under supervision, but not particularly interfere in communication,
- Books should become a common item in everyday life. To accustom a child to books, you can buy him special hard books with squeaking, rustling inserts. Every day, the child needs to read with intonation, show pictures in books. Reading sessions should be short but interesting.
From one to three years
Physical developmentThe weight of boys by the age of one is usually about 10 kilograms, girls - a little less.
The beginning of the period coincides with the first independent steps. Some children by this age already walk on their own, while others are just learning. The coordination of movements is not yet too developed, so many falls are likely, it will not be easy to master even the lowest step. This skill comes, approximately, to one and a half years.
Favorite toy during this period - the ball. It gives you the opportunity to move freely and at the same time interact with others. By the age of two, the baby can even pick it up and throw it.
By the age of two, the baby is already quite briskly running and calmly overcomes an obstacle ten centimeters high. The height of a boy is on average 88 cm, girls 86 cm, the weight of boys is up to 13 kg, girls - about 12.5 kg. The best activity for children of two to three years old is frisky running around, jumping on a trampoline. The kid can already partially dress himself, climbs the stairs with a step height of up to 20 cm.
intellectual development
Time for active exploration of the environment. The ability to hear, visually, tactilely master the world is rapidly developing. Children understand conversation better and some even try to speak on their own. The first words are usually no more than a dozen, gradually there are more of them, and the speech is enriched with adjectives ( by two years).The kid knows his favorite fairy-tale characters and can point to them, can comb his hair himself, and also fulfill a simple request from an adult.
Children learn most of the skills in the game, so it is important that the baby has the opportunity to communicate and play with people of different ages.
Two-year-olds already distinguish between primary colors, speak in short sentences. This is the age when children really like to collect pyramids and houses from cubes. Some may memorize a few lines from a verse.
It is not difficult to eat with a spoon and drink from a cup. Children at this age are very fond of drawing, although it is still quite difficult to make out something specific in these pictures.
It is important at this age to teach the child to wash, wash their hands and brush their teeth ( with the help of parents).
How to help a child develop?
At this age, the child's brain instantly grasps information, so all educational games will come in handy.
1. You should take four to five different objects of different colors, as well as the same number of sheets of colored paper of the same colors. After the baby sees all the toys, you should ask him to find the house of each of them. And put one on a sheet of the same color,
2. Take three or four objects made of materials of different density, pour water into the bath and try to “guess” which of them will float on the surface. Then you should lower all the toys into the bath. When the child examines the toys, he needs to be told what material they are made of and why they sink. At the end of the lesson, you should take a rag and dry all the toys together with the child,
3. It is necessary to pick up several pairs of animals: mother and baby. It can be pictures or soft toys. The baby should be told what sounds each animal makes, paying special attention to the fact that the mother “speaks” loudly, and the baby quietly. After that, hide one of the figures behind your back and make its inherent sound. The kid must guess who exactly is hidden behind his back.
At 3 years old
What does he already know?- Distinguish between the main four colors and some secondary colors,
- Can fold a nesting doll or put containers of different sizes into each other ( up to six pieces),
- Distinguishes and can pick up simple figures ( asterisk, heart, square, circle, triangle), knows their names,
- Can distinguish simple figures by touch,
- Easily copes with a large pyramid ( of 10 rings),
- Distinguish between larger and smaller sizes
- Distinguish between hard and soft
- Assembles a drawing from two to three pieces,
- Can complement the picture with missing elements,
- Can draw a circle, a rectangle, color it in,
- Draws simple pictures already invented on their own,
- Sculpts balls, sausages and flat cakes from plasticine, sticks one ball to another,
- Willingly plays role-playing games ( doctor, seller),
- Actively interacts with peers
- Proud of his successes, rejoices in praise, can be disobedient, inquisitive,
- In case of failures, he gets upset, sees and realizes the emotions of other people,
- Can copy the manner of speaking, perform any actions of adults and other children,
- At this age, a child can already pronounce up to one and a half thousand words, answers questions about his name, age, names animals, can retell a fairy tale, easily learns rhymes and nursery rhymes.
At 4 years old
What does he already know?
- Vocabulary is already about two thousand words,
- Speech acquires intonation,
- They like to solve riddles, repeat phrases from cartoons, songs and rhymes with pleasure,
- They ask a lot of questions
- One lesson can take up to 20 minutes,
- They know the seasons of the day and the year, the right and left sides,
- Closer to five years, they can pick up rhymes,
- Sculpt figures from clay or plasticine, assemble mosaics, figures from Lego-type constructors,
- lace up shoes,
- Fold a piece of paper in half
- String large beads on the fishing line.
At 5 years old
The height of boys is 105 - 115 cm, girls 105 - 112 cm.At this age, children are happy and move a lot, so you can give them to sports sections, encourage sports and physical education at home. Very good lessons with the ball, wall bars.
It is very important to prepare for the child workplace for preparation for school and future studies. In the child's room, you should often ventilate, keep it in order and take care of sufficient lighting.
What does he already know?
- Counts to at least 10, some kids know the alphabet
- They know colors and shades, they can select colors,
- Focuses on only one subject or task
- Expresses his thoughts very well, in long and complex sentences,
- In the dictionary of a five-year-old up to three thousand words,
- Can retell the story he heard
- Distinguished by gullibility to the people around him, tries to be like adults in everything and behave on an equal footing,
- Already have friends
- At this age, children often experience various fears, are quickly excited.
- This is the age when children not only take the love of their parents, but also learn the basics of bestowing love. Therefore, it is very important not to hide your feelings, to devote more time to the baby,
- In order not to raise an insecure person, you need to scold less and praise the child more,
- He should be taught the rules of behavior in transport, in a store, on the street, since such children do not yet understand the dangers associated with the outside world and strangers,
- It is important to train the child's memory, ask them to tell you how the day went. kindergarten. This will help in the future easier to assimilate knowledge,
- Now you can buy a notebook and write. These will be very simple activities that will prepare the baby for school. For example, fill in a line in a notebook with dashes at different angles, write a whole line of commas. Classes should not last longer than 20 minutes,
- It is very useful to fold puzzles, as well as pictures from separate parts,
- Good games for the development of logic, role-playing games.
At 6 - 7 years old
The age of 6 - 7 years is called the age of the first physiological traction. That is, over the year, the height and weight of the child increases significantly ( growth, on average, by 8 cm).The course of many physiological processes in the child's body also changes, the child develops physically.
In boys, the testicles are slightly enlarged ( testicles), which indicates the imminent onset of puberty. Now the boy can become "prickly", does not allow caresses from his mother, and also enters into a confrontation with girls of the same age. Such a confrontation is a subconscious cover of interest in the opposite sex.
The child's skeleton during this period experiences a great load, as it increases significantly muscle mass. The posture of the child is formed. It is necessary to create a comfortable workplace for doing homework.
This is the period of the final formation of internal organs: lungs, bronchi. The location of the ribs changes, the weight and volume of the heart increase. The respiratory rate decreases and the pressure increases. In connection with these changes, the child is less likely to suffer from inflammatory diseases of the respiratory system, as well as SARS.
The change of milk teeth to permanent ones begins. The diet should be as varied and complete as possible.
Early Childhood Development
According to experts in early development, the first classes can begin as early as six months of age. It is at this age that the basis for the future development of the child's abilities is created.The emphasis is on developing:
- Rumor
- vision,
- concentrations,
- tactile perception,
- Motility ( including small ones).
- distinguish colors,
- distinguish sounds,
- Distinguish the shapes
- Distinguish sizes.
Early Development Benefits
1. Zaitsev Cubes. Despite the fact that the blocks are designed to teach reading by syllables, they can be used to develop even the smallest. Cubes have a different color, size, and sound ( if you shake),2. Laces. They are very different, suitable even for the smallest. They are made of plastic, soft materials, wood. Remarkably develop fine motor skills hands, prepare the child for future “adult” activities, and also activate the brain. The simplest laces are large wooden fruits with holes - moves and worms attached to them with laces. Even a baby who has not reached the age of one can cope with such lacing. More complex options are large buttons, they can be used for yearlings, and very complex options are a picture to which the missing details should be attached using laces ( like a mushroom cap),
3. Montessori aids. These allowances are designed for children from two years of age. Many different benefits have been created for the development of different qualities and abilities of the child. For example, for the development of motor skills and coordination, there is " pink tower"- ten cubes of the same pink color of different sizes. The size of the edges is 1 - 10 cm. It is used most often after three years. " Frames with clasps» - a variety of fasteners, ties, Velcro, snaps, buttons are attached to wooden frames. This will help facilitate the process of dressing, as well as teach you to concentrate, improve motor skills,
4. Benefits can be made with my own hands from items that are in every home. For example, if you fasten several matchboxes together, the baby will be happy to close and open them, hide small items in drawers. You can give the child one jar and several different lids so that he chooses the right size. Tubes from old felt-tip pens can be divided into several parts and strung on twine or fishing line.
Many experts warn that loading a child with exact knowledge too early ( reading, writing, languages, computer activities…) can interfere with the harmonious development of the brain. Since all of the above activities contribute to the development of the right hemisphere. The left, which is responsible for creativity, creative thinking begins to develop actively only after 5 years. Overloading the right hemisphere can adversely affect the development of the left.
Child development systems
1. Glen Doman MethodInitially, the technique was created for kids who slow down in development. But today it is used for the early development of perfectly healthy children and gives good results. The basis of the technique is the visual perception of objects. The main teaching aid is special cards on which an object is drawn, framed and written in large letters at the bottom. block letters his name. It is best to make frames and inscriptions in red. There are also cards with several items and an alphabetical inscription of the number of items.
The lesson is that the parent shows the picture for one second and says the name of the object aloud. First, it is better to show cards with short words.
2. Montessori Method
Based on the assertion that it is not necessary to interfere with the development of the baby, you should create for this best conditions in which everyone will take what he is interested in. You should not show an example of actions, but only push the child to the desired decision or action. The technique allows the child to become an independent person. The technique involves the use of a large number of benefits and auxiliary items that can be made with your own hands from simple household objects.
3. Nikitin's technique
Its basis is a large number of educational games that make kids think, set themselves more complex tasks. According to this technique, the parent is required to participate in all classes. More emphasis is placed on the development of logical thinking, so it is advisable to combine Nikitin exercises with exercises from other developmental techniques.
Games for the development of children
The game in the life of children occupies an important place, since it is in the process of games that children learn and develop, comprehend the necessary skills. When choosing a game, one should take into account not only the age of the child, but also the tasks that need to be solved with the help of the game. 1. birdie. For children 15 - 18 months. The child learns to imitate animals and birds, moves better. The kid should squat down and imitate the movement of the birds. The parent at this time reads a rhyme: “ A bird sat on the window, sit with us for a while, sit, don’t fly away, a bird flew away - ah! At the last sounds, the child should stand up, wave his "wings" and fly away,
2. Train. For children 18 - 24 months. Children learn to move at the same time and perform joint actions, to be independent. You need to play with at least two children. The parent is the locomotive, and the children are the wagons of the locomotive. You should move slowly at first, then faster, in a circle or in a rectangle. When moving, you should make characteristic movements with your hands and say " choo-choo»,
3. Kolobok. For children 18 - 36 months. The game allows you to strengthen the muscles, spine, relax. Toddlers must imagine that they are koloboks. Lying on their backs, they raise their arms up, stretch their legs and roll to the right, after which they roll to the left. The parent at this time says a nursery rhyme: “ here the bun rolled. Rolling, rolling, don't catch up with him»,
4. Draw a picture. For children from 12 to 36 months. The parent draws the beginning of a simple picture, for example, a cloud, and the child must complete the missing elements ( rain or sun),
5. Multicolored snowballs. For children from 12 to 36 months. Make two or three dense snowballs, bring home and quickly paint in different colors. You can cut the snowballs with a dull knife and show the baby how the paint is absorbed into the snow,
6. Fishing. For babies up to 12 months. Collect a basin of water, float small light objects. Give the kid a sieve and ask him to catch all floating objects with a sieve,
7. Collect a puddle.
For children from 12 to 36 months. Place two shallow containers in front of the child: one empty, the other with water. Give him a sponge and ask him to transfer all the water with the help of a sponge from a full container to an empty one and try not to “lose” water along the way.
I.The mental development of the child in accordance with the age periodization of the development of children.
| Periods | Early childhood | Childhood | adolescence | |||
| stages | Infancy | Early age | preschool age |
Junior school |
teenage |
Early |
| A crisis
(where does the stage start) |
A crisis newborns |
A crisis | A crisis | A crisis | A crisis | A crisis |
| The main type of activity | Emotional Communication | object-manipulative activity | role-playing game | educational activity | intimate personal communication | educational and professional activities |
| Period content | The process of child development begins in infancy with the fact that the child begins to recognize the parents and perk up at their appearance. This is how he communicates with adults. | At the beginning of an early age, objects are manipulated and practical, sensorimotor intelligence begins to form. At the same time, there is an intensive development of speech communication. Objective actions serve as a way to establish interpersonal contacts. | At preschool age, the role-playing game becomes the leading activity, in which the child models relationships between people, as if fulfilling their social roles, copying the behavior of adults. | At primary school age, teaching becomes the main activity, as a result of which intellectual and cognitive abilities are formed. Through teaching, the whole system of relations between the child and adults is built. | Labor activity consists in the emergence of a joint passion for any business. Communication at this age comes to the fore and is built on the basis of the so-called “camaraderie code”. The "Code of Partnership" includes business and personal relationships similar to those of adults. | In senior school age, the processes of adolescence continue to develop, adolescents begin to think about their future profession. High school students begin to think about the meaning of life, their position in society, professional and personal self-determination. |
II. The concept of the social situation of the child's development, the leading type of activity, age-related neoplasms, crisis periods of the child's development. The main areas of child development (physical, emotional, intellectual, social, moral development, sexual development), their relationship.
The actual place of the child in social conditions, his attitude towards them and the nature of the activity in these conditions is social situation of child development.
Inextricably linked with a child's life in a particular social situation are the child's typical activities for a given age. Every age has a system various kinds activity, but the leader occupies a special place in it. Leading activity- this is not the activity that takes up the most time for the child. This is the main activity in terms of its importance for mental development. In order for you to help your child develop, you need to know what type of activity is the main thing for a child of this age category, to pay special attention to it.
Within the leading activity, other, new types of activity arise (for example, in play in preschool childhood, the elements of learning first appear and take shape). Changes in the child's personality observed in a given period of development depend on the leading activity (in the game, the child masters the motives and norms of people's behavior, which is an important aspect of personality formation).
Age neoplasms- a new type of personality structure and its activity, those physical and social changes that occur for the first time at this stage and which determine the most important and basic consciousness of the child in his relation to the environment, his inner and outer life and the entire course of his development in a given period .
Crises- turning points on the curve of child development, separating one age from another. To reveal the psychological essence of the crisis means to understand the internal dynamics of development during this period. So, 3 years and 11 years - crises of relations, after them there is an orientation in human relations; 1 year, 7 years - worldview crises that open orientation in the world of things.
At each age stage, the child develops in several areas at once - the baby learns to walk (physical sphere), studies his own body, his genitals (sexual sphere), studies surrounding objects (intellectual sphere), learns to interact with people (social sphere), expresses a sense of independence (emotional sphere) and sees an adult's condemnation for his misdeed (moral sphere).
Eat six spheres human development:
- Physical development: changes in the size, shape and physical maturity of the body, including physical abilities and coordination.
- Sexual development: step by step process formation of developed sexuality, starting from the moment of birth.
- Intellectual development: the learning and use of language, the ability to reason, solve problems and organize ideas, it is associated with the physical growth of the brain.
- Social development: the process of acquiring the knowledge and skills needed to successfully interact with others.
- Emotional development: feelings and emotional reactions to events, changes in one's own feelings, understanding of one's own and the corresponding forms of their expression.
- Moral development: a growing understanding of good and evil, and changes in behavior due to that understanding; sometimes called conscience.
III. general characteristics the main age periods of a child's development (infancy, early age, preschool age, primary school age, adolescence, youth).
Periods of mental development of children
In each stage that the child lives through, the same mechanisms operate. The principle of classification is the change of leading activities such as:
- orientation of the child to the main meanings human relations(there is an internalization of motives and tasks);
- the assimilation of methods of action developed in society, including objective, mental ones.
The mastering of tasks and meaning is always the first, and after it comes the moment of mastering actions. D. B. Elkonin proposed the following periods of development of children:
- infancy - from the moment of birth to a year (the leading form of activity is communication);
- early childhood - from 1 to 3 years (objective activity develops, as well as verbal communication);
- junior and middle preschool age - from 3 to 4 or 5 years (the leading activity is the game);
- senior preschool age - from 5 to 6–7 years old (the leading activity is still the game, which is combined with subject activity);
- primary school age - from 7 to 11 years, covers education in primary school(during this period, the main activity is teaching, intellectual and cognitive abilities are formed and developed);
- adolescence - from 11 to 17 years old, covers the process of learning in high school (this period is characterized by: personal communication, work activity; there is a definition of professional activity and oneself as a person). Every period age development has its own differences and a certain time of flow. If you observe the behavior and those mental reactions that occur in a child, then you can independently identify each of the periods. Each new age stage of mental development needs changes: it is necessary to communicate with the child in a different way, in the process of training and education it is necessary to look for and select new means, methods and techniques.
Stages of child development and its composition
If we consider child development as a stage in the formation of personality, it can be divided into several periods. Periods of childhood:
- neonatal crisis;
- infancy (the first year of a child's life);
- crisis of the 1st year of a child's life;
- childhood crisis;
- crisis 3 years;
- preschool childhood;
- crisis 7 years;
- primary school age;
- crisis 11–12 years old;
- teenage childhood.
Development of sensory and motor skills in infancy. "Revitalization Complex" and its content
The "revitalization complex" described by N. M. Shchelovanov arises from 2.5 months and grows up to the 4th month. It includes a group of reactions such as:
- fading, focusing on the subject, a look with tension;
- smile;
- motor recovery;
- localization is the assignment of higher mental functions to specific brain structures.
After four months, the complex falls apart. The course of reactions depends on the behavior of the adult. An analysis of age dynamics shows that up to two months the child reacts equally to both the toy and the adult, but he smiles at the adult more often. After three months, a motor animation is formed on the object seen. In the first half of the year, the child does not distinguish between positive and negative influences. The child has a need for attention, expressive-mimic means of communication appear. The more attentive an adult is to a child, the earlier he begins to distinguish himself from the outside world, which is the basis of his self-awareness and self-esteem. By the end of the first half of the year, the child shows a rich palette of emotions. The act of grasping at five months has already been formed. Thanks to the adult, the child singles out an integral object and forms a sensory-motor act. Interest in actions and objects is evidence of a new stage of development. In the second half of life, the manipulative action (throwing, pinching, biting) becomes the leading one. By the end of the year, the child masters the properties of objects. At 7-8 months, the child should throw, touch objects, actively behave. Communication is situational business. Attitudes towards adults are changing, negative reactions to remarks prevail. Emotions become brighter, differ depending on the situation.
The development of infant motor skills follows a certain pattern: movements are improved from large, sweeping to smaller and more precise, and first this happens with the arms and upper half of the body, then with the legs and lower body. The baby's sensory develops faster than the motor sphere, although the two are connected. This age stage is preparatory to speech development and is called the preverbal period.
- The development of passive speech - the child learns to understand, guesses the meaning; the anemotic hearing of a child is important, in an adult articulation is important.
- Practicing speech articulations. Changing the sound unit (timbre) leads to a change in meaning. Normally, a child at 6-7 months turns his head when naming an object, if this object has a permanent place, and at 7-8 months he looks for the named object among others. By the first year, the child understands what the subject is and performs elementary actions. At 5-6 months, the child must go through the stage of babble and learn to clearly pronounce triads and dyads (three and two sounds), be able to reproduce the situation of communication.
Forms of communication during infancy. Criteria M.I. Lisina.
Communication, according to M. I. Lisina, is a communicative activity with its own structure:
- communication - mutually directed communication, where each participant acts as a subject;
- motivating motive - specific properties of a person (personal, business qualities);
- the meaning of communication is to satisfy the need for knowledge of other people and ourselves through the evaluation of others and ourselves.
All processes of interaction with adults are wide enough and significant for the child. Communication, however, most often acts here only as part of it, since, in addition to communication, the child has other needs. Every day the child makes new discoveries for himself, he needs fresh vivid impressions, vigorous activity. Children need their aspirations to be understood and recognized, in a sense of support from an adult.
The development of the communication process is closely related to all these needs of children, on the basis of which several categories can be distinguished, determined by the motives of communication, such as:
- a cognitive category that arises when a child receives new vivid impressions;
- a business category that arises in the process of active activity of the child;
- a personal category that arises in the process of direct communication between a child and adults.
M. I. Lisina presented the development of communication with adults as a change in several forms of communication. The time of occurrence, the content of the need that is being satisfied, the motives and means of communication were taken into account.
An adult is the main engine in the development of a child's communication. Thanks to his presence, attention, care, the process of communication is born and goes through all the stages of its development. In the first months of life, the child begins to react to an adult: he looks for him with his eyes, smiles in response to his smile. At four to six months, the child develops a revitalization complex. Now he can look long enough and intently at an adult, smile, showing positive emotions. His motor abilities develop, vocalization appears.
The revival complex, according to M. I. Lisina, plays an important role in shaping the interaction of the child with adults. The emergence of situational-personal communication is milestone formation of the child's personality. The child begins to feel on an emotional level. He shows positive emotions, he has a desire to attract the attention of an adult, a desire for common activities with him. Next comes situational business communication. Now it is not enough for a child to get attention from an adult, he needs to perform joint activities with him, as a result of which manipulative activity appears.
Life "acquisitions" of a child in early childhood
Early childhood covers the age from one to 3 years. By the end of the 1st year of life, the child is no longer so dependent on the mother. The psychological unity "mother - child" begins to disintegrate, that is, psychologically, the child is separated from the mother.
The leading activity becomes object-manipulative. The process of psychological development is accelerated. This is facilitated by the fact that the child begins to move independently, activities with objects appear, verbal communication is actively developing, and self-esteem is born. Already in the crisis of the 1st year of life, the main contradictions are formed, leading the child to new stages of development:
- autonomous speech as a means of communication is addressed to another, but is devoid of constant meanings, which requires its transformation. It is understandable to others and is used as a means of communicating with others and managing oneself;
- manipulations with objects should be replaced by activities with objects;
- the formation of walking not as an independent movement, but as a means of achieving other goals.
Accordingly, in early childhood there are such neoplasms as speech, objective activity, and prerequisites are created for the development of the personality. The child begins to separate himself from other objects, stand out from the people around him, which leads to the emergence of initial forms of self-consciousness. The first task for the formation of an independent personality is the ability to control your body, arbitrary movements appear. Voluntary movements are developed in the process of formation of the first objective actions. By the age of 3, the child develops an idea of himself, which is expressed in the transition from calling himself by name to using the pronouns “my”, “I”, etc. The spatial visual memory is leading, which is ahead of figurative and verbal in its development.
An arbitrary form of memorizing words appears. The ability to classify objects by shape and color is manifested in most children in the 2nd half of the 2nd year of life. By the age of 3, the necessary prerequisites are created for the transition to the preschool period.
In early childhood, a variety of cognitive functions develop rapidly in their original forms (sensorics, perception, memory, thinking, attention). At the same time, the child begins to show communicative properties, interest in people, sociability, imitation, primary forms of self-consciousness are formed.
Mental development in early childhood and the variety of its forms and manifestations depend on how much the child is included in communication with adults and how actively he manifests himself in objective cognitive activity.
Semantic(semantic, informational content of the language or its separate unit) function and its meaning for children
The first simple sounds uttered by a child appear in the 1st month of life. The child begins to pay attention to the speech of an adult.
The buzzing appears between 2 and 4 months. At 3 months, the child has his own speech reactions to the speech of an adult. At 4-6 months, the child goes through the cooing stage, begins to repeat simple syllables after the adult. In the same period, the child is able to distinguish intonation the speech addressed to him. The first words appear in a child's speech at 9-10 months.
At 7 months, we can talk about the appearance of intonation in a child. On average, a one and a half year old baby operates with fifty words. At about 1 year old, the child begins to pronounce individual words, name objects. About 2 years old he calls simple sentences consisting of two or three words.
The child begins active verbal communication. From the age of 1, he switches to phonemic speech, and this period lasts up to 4 years. Urebenka quickly replenishes vocabulary, and by the age of 3 he knows about 1500 words. From 1 to 2 years old, the child uses words without changing them. But in the period from 2 to 3 years, the grammatical side of speech begins to form, he learns to coordinate words. The child begins to understand the meaning of words, which determines the development of the semantic function of speech. His understanding of objects becomes more precise and correct. He can differentiate words, understand the generalized meaning. From 1 to 3 years old, the child enters the stage of pronouncing polysemantic words, but their number in his vocabulary is still small.
Verbal generalizations in a child begin to form from the 1st year of life. First, he combines objects into groups according to external signs, then - according to functional ones. Next, general features of objects are formed. The child begins to imitate adults in his speech.
If an adult encourages the child, actively communicates with him, then the child's speech will develop faster. At the age of 3-4, the child begins to operate with concepts (this is how words can be defined by the semantic language structure), but they are not yet fully understood by him. His speech becomes more coherent and takes the form of a dialogue. The child develops contextual speech, egocentric speech appears. But still at this age the child is not fully aware of the meaning of words. Most often, his sentences are built only from nouns, adjectives and verbs are excluded. But gradually the child begins to master all parts of speech: first, adjectives and verbs, then unions and prepositions appear in his speech. At 5 years old, a child already masters grammar rules. Its vocabulary contains about 14,000 words. The child can correctly compose sentences, change words, use temporary forms of the verb. Dialogue develops.
Crisis of the 1st year of a child's life
By the 1st year of life, the child becomes more independent. At this age, children are already getting up on their own, learning to walk. The ability to move without the help of an adult gives the child a sense of freedom and independence.
During this period, children are very active, they master what was not available to them before. The desire to be independent from an adult can also manifest itself in the child's negative behavior. Having felt freedom, children do not want to part with this feeling and obey adults.
Now the child himself chooses the type of activity. When an adult refuses, a child may show negativism: scream, cry, etc. Such manifestations are called the crisis of the 1st year of life, which was studied by S. Yu. Meshcheryakova.
Based on the results of a survey of parents, S. Yu. Meshcheryakova concluded that all these processes are temporary and transient. She divided them into 5 subgroups:
- difficult to educate - the child is stubborn, does not want to obey the requirements of adults, shows perseverance and a desire for constant parental attention;
- the child has many forms of communication that were previously unusual for him. They can be positive and negative. The child violates regime moments, he develops new skills;
- the child is very vulnerable and may show strong emotional reactions to the condemnation and punishment of adults;
- A child, when faced with difficulties, may contradict himself. If something does not work out, the child calls on an adult to help him, but immediately refuses the help offered to him;
- the child can be very moody. The crisis of the 1st year of life affects the life of the child as a whole.
The areas affected by this period are the following: objective activity, the child's relationship with adults, the child's attitude towards himself. In objective activity, the child becomes more independent, he becomes more interested in various objects, he manipulates and plays with them. The child strives to be independent and independent, he wants to do everything himself, despite the fact that he lacks skills. In relation to adults, the child becomes more demanding, he may show aggression towards loved ones. Strangers cause him distrust, the child becomes selective in communication and may refuse contact with a stranger. The child's attitude towards himself also undergoes changes.
The child becomes more self-reliant and independent and wants adults to recognize this, allowing him to act in accordance with his own desires. The child is often offended and protests when parents demand submission from him, not wanting to fulfill his whims.
Stages of sensory development of children of the 1st year of life
Infancy is characterized by a high intensity of the processes of development of sensory and motor functions, the creation of prerequisites for speech and social development in conditions of direct interaction between a child and an adult.
Great importance has an environment, the participation of adults not only in the physical, but also in the mental development of the child. Mental development in infancy is characterized by the most pronounced intensity, not only in terms of pace, but also in the sense of new formations.
At first, the child has only organic needs. They are satisfied with the help of the mechanisms of unconditioned reflexes, on the basis of which the child's initial adaptation to the environment takes place. In the process of interaction with the outside world, the child gradually develops new needs: communication, movement, manipulation of objects, satisfaction of interest in the environment. Congenital unconditioned reflexes to this stage development cannot meet these needs.
A contradiction arises, which is resolved by the formation of conditioned reflexes - flexible neural connections - as a mechanism for the child to acquire and consolidate life experience. Gradually becoming more complex orientation in the surrounding world leads to the development of sensations (primarily visual, which begin to play a leading role in the development of the child) and becomes the main means of cognition. At first, children can follow someone with their eyes only in a horizontal plane, later - vertically.
From 2 months old, babies can focus on an object. From now on, babies are most of all engaged in examining various objects that are in their field of vision. Children from 2 months are able to distinguish simple colors, and from 4 - the shape of an object.
From the 2nd month, the child begins to respond to adults. At 2–3 months, she responds with a smile to her mother's smile. On the 2nd month, the baby can concentrate, cooing and fading appear - this is a manifestation of the first elements in the revitalization complex. A month later, the elements are converted into a system. Around the middle of the 1st year of life, hands develop noticeably.
Feeling, grasping hand movements and manipulating objects expand the child's ability to learn about the world around him. As the child develops, the forms of his communication with adults expand and enrich.
From the forms of emotional reaction to an adult, the child gradually moves to respond to words of a certain meaning, begins to understand them. At the end of the 1st year of life, the child himself pronounces the first words.
Syncretism and the mechanism of transition to thinking
Thought processes and operations are formed in a child in stages in the process of his growth and development. There is development in the cognitive sphere. Initially, thinking is based on sensory knowledge, on the perception and sensation of reality.
I. M. Sechenov called the elementary thinking of a child, directly related to the manipulation of objects, actions with them, the stage of objective thinking. When a child begins to speak, to master speech, he gradually moves to a higher level of reflection of reality - to the level of verbal thinking.
Preschool age is characterized by visual-figurative thinking. The child's consciousness is occupied with the perception of specific objects or phenomena, and since the skills of analysis have not yet been formed, he cannot single out their essential features. K. Buhler, W. Stern, J. Piaget understood the process of development of thinking as a connection of the direct process of thinking with the driving forces of its development. As the child begins to grow up, his thinking develops.
The biological regularity of age development determines and forms the stages of development of thinking. Learning becomes less important. Thinking is spoken of as an organic, spontaneous process of development.
V. Stern singled out the following signs in the process of thinking development:
- purposefulness, which from the very beginning is inherent in a person as a person;
- the emergence of new intentions, the emergence of which determines the power of consciousness over movements. This becomes possible due to the development of speech ( important engine in the development of thought). Now the child learns to generalize phenomena and events and classify them into different categories.
The most important thing, according to V. Stern, is that the process of thinking in its development goes through several stages that replace each other. These assumptions echo the concept of K. Buhler. For him, the process of development of thinking is due to the biological growth of the organism. K. Buhler also draws attention to the importance of speech in the development of thinking. J. Piaget created his own concept. In his opinion, thinking is syncretic in a child under 12 years of age.
By syncretism, he understood a single structure that encompasses all thought processes. Its difference lies in the fact that in the process of thinking, synthesis and analysis are not interdependent. The ongoing analysis of information, processes or phenomena is not further synthesized. J. Piaget explains this by the fact that the child is egocentric by nature.
Egocentrism and its meaning
For a long time, the preschooler's thinking was negatively commented on. This is due to the fact that the thinking of the child was compared with the thinking of an adult, revealing shortcomings.
J. Piaget in his research focused not on shortcomings, but on those differences that exist in the thinking of the child. He revealed a qualitative difference in the child's thinking, which lies in the child's peculiar attitude and perception of the world around him. The only true for the child is his first impression.
Up to a certain point, children do not draw a line between their subjective world and the real world. Therefore, they transfer their ideas to real objects.
In the first case, children believe that all objects are alive, and in the second, they think that all natural processes and phenomena arise and are subject to the actions of people.
Also, children at this age are not able to separate the mental processes of a person from reality.
So, for example, a dream for a child is a drawing in the air or in the light, which is endowed with life and can independently move, say, around the apartment.
The reason for this is that the child does not separate himself from the outside world. He does not realize that his perception, actions, sensations, thoughts are dictated by the processes of his psyche, and not by external influences. For this reason, the child gives life to all objects, animates them.
J. Piaget called the non-isolation of one's own "I" from the surrounding world egocentrism. The child considers his point of view the only true and the only possible one. He does not yet understand that everything may look different, not as it seems at first glance.
With egocentrism, the child does not understand the difference between his attitude to the world and reality. With egocentrism, the child manifests an unconscious quantitative relationship, that is, his judgments about quantity and size are by no means correct. For a large one, he will take a short and straight stick instead of a long, but curved one.
Egocentrism is also present in the speech of the child, when he begins to talk to himself, not needing listeners. Gradually, external processes encourage the child to overcome egocentrism, realize himself as an independent person and adapt to the world around him.
Crisis 3 years
The constructive content of the crisis is associated with the growing emancipation of the child from the adult.
The crisis of 3 years is a restructuring of the child's social relations, a change in his position in relation to the surrounding adults, primarily to the authority of the parents. He tries to establish new, higher forms of relations with others.
The child develops a tendency to self-satisfy his needs, and the adult retains the old type of relationship and thereby limits the child's activity. The child may act contrary to his wishes (vice versa). So, refusing momentary desires, he can show his character, his "I".
The most valuable neoplasm of this age is the desire of the child to do something on their own. He starts to say: "I myself."
At this age, a child may somewhat overestimate his abilities and abilities (i.e., self-esteem), but he can already do a lot on his own. The child needs communication, he needs the approval of an adult, new successes, there is a desire to become a leader. The developing child resists the old relationship.
He is naughty, showing a negative attitude towards the requirements of an adult. The crisis of 3 years is a transient phenomenon, but the neoplasms associated with it (separation of oneself from others, comparing oneself with other people) is an important step in the mental development of the child.
The desire to be like adults can only find its fullest expression in the form of play. Therefore, the crisis of 3 years is resolved by the transition of the child to play activities.
E. Koehler characterized the crisis phenomena:
- negativism - the unwillingness of the child to obey the established rules and fulfill the requirements of the parents;
- stubbornness - when the child does not hear, does not perceive other people's arguments, insisting on his own;
- obstinacy - the child does not accept and opposes the established household way;
- self-will - the child's desire to be independent from an adult, that is, to be independent;
- depreciation of an adult - the child ceases to respect adults, may even insult them, parents cease to be an authority for him;
- protest-rebellion - any action of the child begins to resemble a protest;
- despotism - the child begins to show despotism in relation to parents and adults in general.
Play and its role in the mental development of the child
The essence of the game, according to L. S. Vygotsky, lies in the fact that it is the fulfillment of the generalized desires of the child, the main content of which is the system of relations with adults.
A characteristic feature of the game is that it allows the child to perform an action in the absence of conditions for actually achieving its results, since the motive for each action lies not in obtaining results, but in the very process of its implementation.
In the game and other activities, such as drawing, self-service, communication, the following new formations are born: the hierarchy of motives, imagination, the initial elements of arbitrariness, understanding the norms and rules of social relationships.
For the first time, the relationship that exists between people is revealed in the game. The child begins to comprehend that participation in every activity requires a person to fulfill certain duties and gives him a number of rights. Children learn discipline by following certain rules of the game.
In joint activities, they learn to coordinate their actions. In the game, the child learns the possibility of replacing a real object with a toy or a random thing, and can also replace objects, animals and other people with his own person.
The game at this stage becomes symbolic. The use of symbols, the ability to replace one object by means of another, is an acquisition that ensures the further mastery of social signs.
Thanks to the development of the symbolic function, a classifying perception is formed in the child, and the content side of the intellect changes significantly. Game activity contributes to the development of voluntary attention and voluntary memory. A conscious goal (to focus attention, remember and recall) is allocated to the child earlier and easier in the game.
The game has a great influence on the development of speech. It also affects intellectual development: in the game, the child learns to generalize objects and actions, to use the generalized meaning of the word.
Entering the game situation is a condition for different forms mental activity of the child. From thinking in object manipulation, the child moves on to thinking in representations.
In the role-playing game, the ability to act in a mental plane begins to develop. Role play is also important for the development of the imagination.
Leading activity of the child towards the end of early childhood
By the end of early childhood, new activities begin to take shape that determine mental development. This is a game and productive activities (drawing, modeling, designing).
In the 2nd year of a child's life, the game is procedural in nature. Actions are single, unemotional, stereotyped, may not be interconnected. L. S. Vygotsky called such a game a quasi-game, which implies imitation of an adult and the development of motor stereotypes. The game begins from the moment when the child masters the game substitutions. Fantasy develops, therefore, the level of thinking rises. This age is different in that the child does not have a system according to which his game would be built. He can either repeat one action many times, or perform them chaotically, randomly. For a child, it does not matter in what sequence they occur, because there is no logic between his actions. During this period, the process itself is important for the child, and the game is called procedural.
By the age of 3, a child is able to act not only in a perceived situation, but also in a mental (imaginary) one. One object is replaced by another, they become symbols. Between the substitute object and its meaning, the child's action becomes, a connection appears between reality and imagination. Game substitution allows you to tear off an action or purpose from the name, that is, from the word, and modify a specific object. When developing play substitutions, the child needs the support and help of an adult.
Stages due to which the child is included in the substitution game:
- the child does not respond to the substitutions that the adult makes during the game, he is not interested in words, questions, or actions;
- the child begins to show interest in what the adult is doing and repeat his movements on his own, but the child's actions are still automatic;
- the child can perform substitution actions or their imitation not immediately after the adult's demonstration, but after a lapse of time. The child begins to understand the difference between a real object and a substitute;
- the child himself begins to replace one object with another, but imitation is still strong. For him, these actions are not yet conscious;
- the child can independently replace one object with another, while giving it a new name. In order for game substitutions to be successful, an adult's emotional involvement in the game is needed.
By the age of 3, the child should have the whole structure of the game:
- strong gaming motivation;
- game actions;
- original game substitutions;
- active imagination.
Central neoplasms of early childhood
Neoplasms of an early age - the development of objective activity and cooperation, active speech, game substitutions, the folding of a hierarchy of motives.
On this basis, arbitrary behavior appears, i.e., independence. K. Levin described the early age as situational (or "field behavior"), i.e. the child's behavior is determined by his visual field ("what I see, I want"). Every thing is affectively charged (needed). The child owns not only speech forms of communication, but also elementary forms of behavior.
The development of the child's psyche in the period of early childhood depends on a number of factors: the mastery of a straight gait, the development of speech and objective activity.
Mastery of a straight gait affects mental development. The feeling of mastery of one's own body serves as a self-reward for the child. The intention to walk supports the ability to achieve the desired goal and the participation and approval of adults.
At the age of 2, a child enthusiastically looks for difficulties for himself, and overcoming them causes positive emotions in the baby. The ability to move, being a physical acquisition, leads to psychological consequences.
Thanks to the ability to move, the child enters a period of more free and independent communication with the outside world. Mastering walking develops the ability to navigate in space. The development of objective actions also influences the mental development of the child.
Manipulative activity, characteristic of infancy, in early childhood begins to be replaced by objective activity. Its development is associated with the mastery of those methods of handling objects that have been developed by society.
The child learns from adults to focus on the constant meaning of objects, which is fixed by human activity. Fixing the content of objects in itself is not given to the child. He can open and close the cupboard door an infinite number of times, tap the floor with a spoon for a long time, but such activity is not able to acquaint him with the purpose of objects.
The functional properties of objects are revealed to the child through the upbringing and teaching influence of adults. The child learns that actions with different objects have different degrees of freedom. Some items, due to their properties, require a strictly defined method of action (closing boxes with lids, folding nesting dolls).
In other objects, the mode of action is rigidly fixed by their social purpose - these are tool objects (spoon, pencil, hammer).
Preschool age (3-7 years). Development of perception, thinking and speech of the child
In a small child, perception is still not very perfect. Perceiving the whole, the child often fails to grasp the details.
The perception of preschool children is usually associated with the practical operation of the relevant objects: to perceive an object is to touch it, touch it, feel it, manipulate it.
The process ceases to be affective and becomes more differentiated. The perception of the child is already purposeful, meaningful and subject to analysis.
In preschool children, visual-effective thinking continues to develop, which is facilitated by the development of imagination. Due to the development of voluntary and mediated memory, visual-figurative thinking is transformed.
Preschool age is the starting point in the formation of verbal-logical thinking, as the child begins to use speech to solve a variety of problems. There are changes, development in the cognitive sphere.
Initially, thinking is based on sensory knowledge, perception and sensation of reality.
The first mental operations of the child can be called his perception of ongoing events and phenomena, as well as his correct reaction to them.
This elementary thinking of the child, directly related to the manipulation of objects, actions with them, I. M. Sechenov called the stage of objective thinking. The thinking of a preschool child is visual-figurative, his thoughts are occupied by objects and phenomena that he perceives or represents.
His analysis skills are elementary, the content of generalizations and concepts includes only external and often not at all significant signs (“a butterfly is a bird because it flies, and a chicken is not a bird because it cannot fly”). The development of speech in children is inextricably linked with the development of thinking.
The speech of the child develops under the decisive influence of verbal communication with adults, listening to their speech. In the 1st year of a child's life, anatomical, physiological and psychological prerequisites for mastering speech are created. This stage of speech development is called pre-speech. A child of the 2nd year of life practically masters speech, but his speech is of an agrammatical nature: it does not contain declensions, conjugations, prepositions, conjunctions, although the child is already building sentences.
Grammatically correct oral speech begins to form at the age of 3, and by the age of 7, the child has a fairly good command of oral colloquial speech.
Preschool age (3-7 years). Development of attention, memory and imagination.
At preschool age, attention becomes more concentrated and stable. Children learn to control it and can already direct it to various objects.
A 4-5 year old child is able to hold attention. For each age, the stability of attention is different and is due to the interest of the child and his capabilities. So, at 3-4 years old, a child is attracted by bright, interesting pictures, on which he can hold attention for up to 8 seconds.
For children of 6-7 years old, fairy tales, puzzles, riddles are interesting, which can hold their attention for up to 12 seconds. In children of 7 years old, the ability to voluntary attention is rapidly developing.
The development of voluntary attention is influenced by the development of speech and the ability to follow the verbal instructions of adults who direct the child's attention to the desired object.
Under the influence of play (and partly labor) activity, the attention of an older preschooler reaches a sufficiently high degree of development, which provides him with the opportunity to study at school.
Children begin to memorize voluntarily from the age of 3-4 due to active participation in games that require the conscious memorization of any objects, actions, words, as well as due to the gradual involvement of preschoolers in self-service work and following the instructions and instructions of elders.
Preschoolers are characterized not only by mechanical memorization, on the contrary, meaningful memorization is more characteristic of them. They resort to mechanical memorization only when they find it difficult to understand and comprehend the material.
At preschool age, verbal-logical memory is still poorly developed, visual-figurative and emotional memory is of primary importance.
The imagination of preschoolers has its own characteristics. For 3-5-year-old children, reproductive imagination is characteristic, that is, everything seen and experienced by children during the day is reproduced in images that are emotionally colored. But by themselves, these images are not able to exist, they need support in the form of toys, objects that perform a symbolic function.
The first manifestations of imagination can be observed in three-year-old children. By this time, the child has accumulated some life experience that provides material for the imagination. The game, as well as constructive activities, drawing, and modeling are of paramount importance in the development of the imagination.
Preschoolers do not have much knowledge, so their imagination is sparing.
Crisis 6-7 years. Structure psychological readiness to learning.
By the end of preschool age, a whole system of contradictions develops, indicating the formation of psychological readiness for schooling.
The formation of its prerequisites is due to the crisis of 6–7 years, which L. S. Vygotsky associated with the loss of childish immediacy and the emergence of a meaningful orientation in one's own experiences (i.e., generalization of experiences).
E. D. Bozhovich connects the crisis of 6-7 years with the appearance of a systemic neoplasm - an internal position expressing new level self-awareness and reflection of the child: he wants to perform a socially significant and socially valued activity, which in modern cultural and historical conditions is schooling.
By the age of 6-7 years, two groups of children are distinguished:
- children who, according to internal prerequisites, are already ready to become schoolchildren and master educational activities;
- children who, without these prerequisites, continue to remain at the level of play activity.
The psychological readiness of the child to study at school is considered both from the subjective and from the objective side.
Objectively, a child is psychologically ready for schooling if by this time he has the level of mental development necessary to start learning: curiosity, vividness of imagination. The attention of the child is already relatively long and stable, he already has some experience in controlling attention, in its independent organization.
The memory of a preschooler is quite developed. He is already able to set himself the task of remembering something. He easily and firmly remembers what particularly strikes him and is directly related to his interests. Relatively well developed visual-figurative memory.
The speech of the child by the time he enters school is already sufficiently developed to begin to teach him systematically and systematically. Speech is grammatically correct, expressive, relatively rich in content. A preschooler can already understand what they hear, coherently express their thoughts.
A child of this age is capable of elementary mental operations: comparison, generalization, inference. The child has a need to build their behavior in such a way as to achieve their goals, and not act under the power of momentary desires.
Elementary personal manifestations have also been formed: perseverance, evaluation of actions in terms of their social significance.
Children are characterized by the first manifestations of a sense of duty and responsibility. This is an important condition for school readiness.
Types of activities characteristic of school age.
The leading activity of the preschooler is the game. Children spend a significant part of their free time in games.
The preschool period is divided into senior preschool and junior preschool age, i.e. from 3 to 7 years. During this time, children's games develop.
Initially, they are subject-manipulative in nature, by the age of 7 they become symbolic and plot-role-playing.
Senior preschool age is the time when almost all games are already available to children. Also at this age, such activities as labor and teaching are born.
Stages of the preschool period:
- junior preschool age (3–4 years). Children of this age most often play alone, their games are objective and serve as an impetus for the development and improvement of basic mental functions (memory, thinking, perception, etc.). Less often, children resort to role-playing games that reflect the activities of adults;
- middle preschool age (4–5 years). Children in games unite in all large groups. Now they are characterized not by imitation of the behavior of adults, but by an attempt to recreate their relationship with each other, role-playing games appear. Children assign roles, set rules and monitor their observance.
Themes for games can be very diverse and are based on the already existing life experience of children. During this period, the formation leadership skills. An individual type of activity appears (as a kind of symbolic form of play). When drawing, the processes of thinking and representation are activated. First, the child draws what he sees, after that - what he remembers, knows or invents; 3) senior preschool age (5–6 years). This age is characterized by the formation and mastering of elementary labor skills and abilities, children begin to understand the properties of objects, and practical thinking develops. While playing, children master household items. Their mental processes are improved, hand movements develop.
Creative activity is very diverse, but the most significant is drawing. The artistic and creative activities of children, music lessons are also important.
Neoplasms of the initial period of school life.
The most important new formations in the initial period of school life are arbitrariness, reflection, and an internal plan of action.
With the advent of these new abilities, the child's psyche is prepared for the next stage of education - the transition to education in the middle classes.
The emergence of these mental qualities is explained by the fact that, having come to school, children are faced with new requirements that teachers presented to them as schoolchildren.
The child should learn to control his attention, be collected and not be distracted by various annoying factors. There is a formation of such a mental process as arbitrariness, which is necessary to achieve the set goals and determines the child's ability to find the most optimal options for achieving the goal, avoiding or overcoming the difficulties that arise.
Initially, children, solving various problems, first discuss their actions step by step with the teacher. Further, they develop such a skill as planning an action for themselves, i.e., an internal plan of action is formed.
One of the main requirements for children is the ability to answer questions in detail, to be able to give reasons and arguments. From the very beginning of training, this is monitored by the teacher. It is significant to separate the child's own conclusions and reasoning from the template answers. The formation of the ability to independently evaluate is fundamental in the development of reflection.
Another new formation is significant - the ability to manage one's own behavior, i.e., self-regulation of behavior.
Before the child entered school, he did not have to overcome his own desires (run, jump, talk, etc.).
Once in a new situation for himself, he is forced to obey the established rules: do not run around the school, do not talk during the lesson, do not get up and do not do extraneous things during class.
On the other hand, he must perform complex motor actions: write, draw. All this requires a significant self-regulation and self-control from the child, in the formation of which an adult should help him.
Junior school age. Development of speech, thinking, perception, memory, attention.
During the period of primary school age, the development of such mental functions as memory, thinking, perception, and speech is carried out. At the age of 7, the level of development of perception is quite high. The child perceives the colors and shapes of objects. The level of development of visual and auditory perception is high.
At the initial stage of training, difficulties are identified in the process of differentiation. This is due to the still unformed system of analysis of perception. The ability of children to analyze and differentiate objects and phenomena is associated with an observation that has not yet been formed. It is no longer enough just to feel and highlight the individual properties of objects. Observation is rapidly forming in the system of schooling. Perception acquires purposeful forms, echoing with other mental processes and moving to a new level - the level of arbitrary observation.
Memory in the period of primary school age is distinguished by a bright cognitive character. A child at this age begins to understand and highlight the task. There is a process of formation of methods and techniques of memorization.
This age is characterized by a number of features: it is easier for children to memorize material based on visualization than on the basis of explanations; concrete names and names are stored in memory better than abstract ones; in order for information to be firmly entrenched in memory, even if it is abstract material, it is necessary to associate it with facts. Memory is characterized by development in arbitrary and meaningful directions. At the initial stages of learning, children are characterized by involuntary memory. This is due to the fact that they are not yet able to consciously analyze the information they receive. Both types of memory at this age are greatly changed and combined, abstract and generalized forms of thinking appear.
Periods of development of thinking:
- the predominance of visual-effective thinking. The period is similar to the thinking processes in preschool age. Children are not yet able to logically prove their conclusions. They build judgments on the basis of individual signs, most often external ones;
- children master such a concept as classification. They still judge objects by external signs, but they are already able to isolate and connect individual parts, uniting them. So, by summarizing, children learn abstract thinking.
A child at this age masters his native language quite well. The statements are direct. The child either repeats the statements of adults, or simply names objects and phenomena. Also at this age, the child gets acquainted with written language.
The specificity of the mental and physiological development of adolescents (boys, girls).
In adolescence, the body of children is rebuilt and undergoes a number of changes.
Their endocrine system begins to change first. Many hormones enter the bloodstream, contributing to the development and growth of tissues. Children start growing fast. At the same time, their puberty occurs. In boys, these processes occur at the age of 13-15, while in girls - at 11-13.
The musculoskeletal system of adolescents also changes. Since a growth spurt occurs during this period, these changes are pronounced. In adolescents, features characteristic of the female and male sexes appear, body proportions change.
Sizes similar to adults are first reached by the head, hands and feet, then the limbs lengthen, and the trunk increases last. This discrepancy in proportions is the cause of the angularity of children in adolescence.
Cardiovascular and nervous system are also subject to change during this period. Since the development of the body is proceeding at a fairly rapid pace, difficulties may arise in the work of the heart, lungs and in the blood supply to the brain.
All these changes cause both a surge of energy and an acute sensitivity to various influences. Negative manifestations can be avoided by not overloading the child with many tasks, protecting him from the effects of prolonged negative experiences.
Puberty is important point in the development of the child as a person. External changes make him look like adults, and the child begins to feel differently (older, more mature, more independent).
Mental processes, like physiological ones, also undergo changes. At this age, the child begins to consciously control his own mental operations. It affects all mental functions: memory, perception, attention. The child is fascinated by thinking itself, by the fact that he can operate with various concepts, hypotheses. The perception of the child becomes more meaningful.
Memory goes through the process of intellectualization. In other words, the child remembers information purposefully, consciously.
In period I, the importance of the function of communication increases. There is a socialization of the individual. The child learns moral norms and rules.
Teen personality development
The personality of a teenager is just beginning to take shape. Self-awareness is of great importance. For the first time the child learns about himself in the family. It is from the words of the parents that the child learns what he is, and forms an opinion about himself, depending on which he builds relationships with other people in the future. This is an important point, since the child begins to set certain goals for himself, the achievement of which is dictated by his understanding of his capabilities and needs. The need to understand oneself is characteristic of adolescents. The child's self-consciousness performs an important function - a socio-regulatory one. Understanding and studying himself, a teenager first of all reveals his shortcomings. He wants to eliminate them. As time passes, the child begins to realize all his individual characteristics (both negative and positive). From that moment on, he tries to realistically assess his capabilities and merits.
This age is characterized by the desire to be like someone, that is, the creation of stable ideals. For adolescents who have just entered adolescence, important criteria in choosing an ideal are not the personal qualities of a person, but his most typical behavior, actions. So, for example, he wants to be like a person who often helps others. Older teenagers often do not want to be like a particular person. They highlight certain personal qualities of people (moral, strong-willed qualities, masculinity for boys, etc.), which they strive for. Most often, the ideal for them is a person who is older in age.
The development of a teenager's personality is rather contradictory. During this period, children are more eager to communicate with their peers, interpersonal contacts are formed, adolescents have an increased desire to be in some kind of group, team.
At the same time, the child becomes more independent, formed as a person, otherwise begins to look at others and the outside world. These features of the child's psyche develop into a teenage complex, which includes:
- the opinion of others about their appearance, capabilities, skills, etc.;
- arrogance (teenagers speak quite sharply in relation to others, considering their opinion to be the only true one);
- polar feelings, actions and behavior. So, they can be cruel and merciful, cheeky and modest, they can be against generally recognized people and worship an accidental ideal, etc.
Teenagers are also characterized by character accentuation. During this period, they are very emotional, excitable, their mood can change quickly, etc. These processes are associated with the formation of personality and character.
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