8.1. Definition of emotions
Emotions are one of the most important aspects of mental processes, which characterizes a person's experience of reality, his attitude to the world around him and to himself, this is one of the forms of reflection of objective reality, in which the active subjective nature of the process dominates.
A more specific definition is the following. Emotion is a specific state of the mental sphere, one of the forms of a behavioral reaction that involves many physiological systems and is determined both by certain motives, the needs of the body, and the level of their satisfaction. Emotions are reflex reactions of the body to external and internal stimuli, characterized by a pronounced subjective coloring and including almost all types of sensitivity. The subjectivity of emotions is manifested in a person's experience of his attitude to the surrounding reality. According to P.K. Anokhin, the emotional state is characterized by a pronounced subjective coloring and covers all types of sensations and experiences of a person - from deeply traumatic suffering to high forms of joy and social feeling of life.
8.2. Classification of emotions
1) Simple and complex. Complex ones that arise on the basis of social and spiritual needs are called feelings, which are characteristic only of a person.
2) Lower (the most elementary, associated with the organic needs of animals and humans), subdivided into homeostatic and instinctive, and higher (associated with the satisfaction of social needs - intellectual, moral, aesthetic, etc.).
3) Sthenic (causing active activity) and asthenic (reducing activity).
4) Moods, passions, affects (by duration and severity).
5) Positive and negative (caused by the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs).
The basis of the motivational system of human existence is 10 fundamental emotions: interest, joy, surprise, grief, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, guilt.
8.3. Functional organization of emotions
In animals, emotions are judged by external manifestations that are genetically fixed in each species and are determined by the posture, characteristic muscle contraction, the condition of the coat, the position of the tail, ears, etc.
8.4. The biological significance of emotions
There are currently two theories explaining their meaning.
8.4.1. Biological theory of P.K.Anokhin
8.4.2. Need-information theory by P.V.Simonov
There is a certain optimum motivation, generated by the need, beyond which there is an emotional behavior. That is, an emotional reaction occurs only when the motivation becomes strong enough. However, if the motivation is too strong, the adaptive nature of emotional behavior is completely lost, only an emotional reaction develops.
In addition, for the emergence of emotions are important novelty, unusualness and surprise situations. If a person is not prepared to meet these conditions, he does not find an opportunity to meet existing needs, an emotion develops. The more limited his system of acquired experience in meeting the needs in a given situation (especially in childhood), the more emotions he experiences.
The informational nature of emotion is expressed by P.V. Simonov in the following form:
E \u003d - P (N-S),
P - a vital need of the body, aimed at the survival of the individual and the continuation of the family, in humans - also determined by social motives;
H - information necessary to meet the need; C - information that exists about the possibility of satisfying the need.
Negative emotion occurs when H > C, and vice versa, positive emotion is expected when H< С.
Further, G.I. Kositsky proposed to evaluate the magnitude of emotional stress according to the formula:
SN \u003d C (InVnEn - IsVsEs),
C - goal;
InVnEn - necessary information, time, energy;
ISVSES - information, time, energy existing in an organism.
First stage stress(SN I) - characterized by a positive emotional state, heightened attention, mobilization of activity, increased efficiency. This increases the functionality of the body.
Second stage stress(CH II) - characterized by a maximum increase in the energy resources of the body, an increase in heart rate, respiration, blood pressure - this is a sthenic negative emotional reaction that has an external expression in the form of rage and anger.
Third stage of stress(CH III) - an asthenic negative reaction, characterized by the depletion of the body's resources and finding expression in a state of horror, fear, melancholy.
Fourth stage of stress(SN IV) - stage of neurosis. The weakening of the activity of positive reinforcement systems or the strengthening of the activity of negative reinforcement leads to hypothymia - depressive state with the manifestation of anxiety, fear, apathy, disruption of work internal organs.
Hyperthymia - elevated mood.
At the heart of emotional disorders are genetic factors and deviations in the balance of neurotransmitters - monoaminergic systems of the body.
8.5. Functions of emotions
1. Reflective-evaluative function, since emotion is a reflection by the human and animal brain of some actual need (its quality and magnitude) and the probability of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates on the basis of genetic and previously acquired individual experience.
2. Regulatory functions. These include a whole complex: 1) switching function, 2) reinforcing, 3) compensatory (replacing) functions.
Switching function. Emotion is an active state of specialized brain structures that prompts behavior change in the direction of minimizing (negative emotion) or maximizing (positive) that state. Since a positive emotion indicates the approach of satisfaction of a need, and a negative one indicates a distance from it, the subject seeks to maximize (strengthen, prolong, repeat) the first state and minimize (weaken, interrupt, prevent) the second.
The switching function is especially pronounced in the process of competition of motives, when the dominant need is singled out, which becomes a vector of purposeful behavior. For example, in the struggle between the instinct of self-preservation and the social need to follow ethical standards, the subject experiences a struggle between fear and a sense of duty and shame.
Reinforcing function is a special kind of switching function. This function consists in facilitating (with positive emotions) and difficulty (with negative ones) in the formation of conditioned reflexes (especially instrumental ones).
Compensatory (substitute) function emotions lies in the fact that emotional stress provides hypermobilization of the autonomic functions of the body in the process of a behavioral act. The expediency of this redundancy of resource mobilization is fixed in the process of natural selection in order to ensure in the best way strenuous activity of the body (for example, in fight or flight).
8.6. Origin of emotions
8.6.1. peripheral theory
8.6.2. Central theory
The central theory was subsequently confirmed by many others.
The connection of emotions with the cortico-thalamo-limbic-reticular structures of the brain (Bekhterev, Kennon, Bart, Lindsley, Paipets, etc.) has been established. So, when the nuclei of the amygdala are irritated, a person experiences states of fear, anger, rage, and sometimes pleasure. Stimulation of the septum, as a rule, is accompanied by euphoria, pleasure, sexual arousal, and a general rise in mood. With irritation of the anterior and posterior sections of the hypothalamus, reactions of anxiety and rage are observed, and with stimulation of the middle section, reactions of anger and sexual arousal are observed. Decorticated cats are not capable of purposeful emotionally adaptive behavior. Damage to the frontal lobes in a person leads to emotional dullness or disinhibition of lower emotions and drives and suppression of higher-type emotions associated with purposeful activity, social relationships and creativity. Specific emotions cannot be associated with the function of a limited range of brain structures, since each of them is related to both positive and negative emotional states.
Thus, at present there is no single generally accepted scientific theory of emotions, as well as accurate data on in which centers and how these emotions arise and what their nervous substrate is. It is possible that all the structures of the limbic system, the hypothalamus, the limbic region of the midbrain, and the frontal regions of the cortex are involved in the development and differentiation of emotions. This is supported by the fact that with tumors and inflammatory diseases of these structures, the emotional behavior of the patient changes. On the other hand, careful stereotaxic destruction of small areas of them can lead to an improvement in the condition of patients or a cure for patients suffering from such unbearable mental sufferings that are not amenable to conservative treatment, such as obsessive neurosis, insatiable sexual desire, depression, etc. (remove the anterior part of the cingulate gyrus, belt, arch, paths from the frontal lobes of the cortex and the nucleus of the thalamus, hypothalamus and amygdala).
The development of physiology showed the correctness of the central origin of emotions. However, it must be pointed out that in the order of backward afferentation peripheral stimuli affect the emotional sphere. For example, myocardial circulatory disorders in coronary artery spasm are often accompanied by fear of death.
8.6.3. The concept of emotional zones of the brain
8.6.4. The role of monoaminergic systems of the brain
It turned out that the areas of self-irritation of the brain almost completely coincide with the innervation zones of catecholaminergic neurons. Often the "reward" zones coincide with the location of monoaminergic neurons. Transection of the medial forebrain bundle or chemical destruction of catecholaminergic neurons leads either to the weakening or to the disappearance of self-irritation. It is possible that catecholamines play the role of neuromodulators rather than mediators in these phenomena. The study of the effect of psychotropic drugs on patients with mental illness showed that in cases of anxiety, tension and irritability, their therapeutic effect is mediated by a decrease in serotonin metabolism, in the case of schizophrenia (1% of the population) - blockade of dopamine-sensitive receptors, and in the case of depressions of various origins (15-30 % of the population) - through the potentiation of the synaptic action of norepinephrine and serotonin.
8.7. Emotional stress and its meaning
in the development of somatic diseases and neuroses
Emotional stress has an adaptive value - mobilization defensive forces aimed at overcoming the conflict. The impossibility of resolving it leads to prolonged stagnant emotional arousal, manifested in a violation of the motivational-emotional sphere and in various somatic diseases: coronary heart disease, hypertension, ulceration, endocrine system dysfunction. There are also profound changes in the balance of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides.
In humans, emotional stress most often develops as a result of social conflicts, which can be modeled on animals. So, in an isolated leader of monkeys, who is able to observe how hierarchical changes in the relations between previously subordinate animals change, hypertension and myocardial infarction develop. On animals of pure genetic lines, it was shown that the degree of resistance to stress in them is different and is determined by the genotype. Stress-resistant (Wistar lines) respond to irritation of negative emotiogenic zones with pressor-depressor reactions, while unstable ones (August lines) respond only with pressor reactions.
It turned out that emotional stress plays an important role in the development of neuroses - transient functional diseases of a psychogenic nature: hysteria, obsessive-compulsive disorders and neurasthenia. Their occurrence and the form of neuroses are determined by the interaction of traumatic situations and the initial characteristics of the personality.
IP Pavlov researched and introduced the concept of experimental neuroses. He concluded that they arise depending on the strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. These parameters then formed the basis of Pavlov's GNI classification. Neuroses most easily arise when these processes are weak and unbalanced. Thus, Pavlov considered neurosis as a consequence of the weakness of the nervous system.
Modern studies have shown that neuroses, despite their functional nature, are associated with reactive and degenerative changes in brain structures of an emotiogenic nature (reticular formation, limbic system, frontal cortex), with an imbalance of catecholamines and acetylcholine in the blood, emotional memory disorders. In particular, the basis of alcoholism and drug addiction and other phobias is the loss of emotional memory.
Resilience to emotional stress is determined by both genotype and phenotype. Thus, an increase in instability to neurotic stimuli occurs with the early isolation of the child (as well as young animals) from the mother or other individuals in his environment. The more a child receives bodily affection, direct contact with adults (hugs, holding him in his arms, often sleeping with his parents), the more optimally his motivational-emotional sphere develops from the moment of birth and the higher the resistance to emotional stress later on.
Feelings and emotions are constantly present in human life. On the one hand, they interfere cognitive activity and relationships with people on the other hand, it is impossible to imagine life without them. Emotions in the course of evolution arose before feelings. Emotions are inherent in humans and animals and express the attitude towards the satisfaction of physiological needs.
Feelings developed on the basis of emotions when interacting with the mind in the course of the formation of social relations and are characteristic only of a person. Feelings are the prevailing attitudes of a person to certain objects and life situations. They are long-term and stable, improved and developed. Feelings evoke different emotions, such as joy in success and sadness in failure.
moral feelings express the attitude of a person towards other people and society, for example, love, benevolence, patriotism, honor, duty. Immoral feelings - greed, selfishness, cruelty, arrogance, selfishness.
Intellectual Feelings express their attitude to the process of cognition, for example, interest, curiosity, joy of discovery.
aesthetic feelings express their attitude to real objects and life events through art (painting, architecture, sculpture, music), for example, aesthetic pleasure, delight.
Emotions are reflex reactions of the body to external and internal stimuli, characterized by a pronounced subjective coloring and including almost all types of sensitivity. Emotions do not arise by themselves; the source of emotions is objective reality in accordance with the needs of the individual. The classification of emotions is shown in fig. 13.7.
A wide variety of negative emotions makes it possible to more successfully adapt to adverse factors, the nature of which is very successfully and subtly communicated by these emotions.
Rice. 13.7.
According to the information theory of P.V. Simonov, emotion is a function of need and information about all the means necessary to satisfy it:
where E - emotion; / - function of need; P - need; And n - the information necessary to meet the need; And c - information available at the moment.
Positive emotions arise if the probability of achieving the goal increases as a result of the receipt of new information (I c > I n). Negative emotions arise when the probability of achieving the goal decreases (I n > I s). Lack of information usually gives rise to negative emotions of fear, fright. Negative emotions cause depletion of the body ( asthenic emotions), while positive emotions stimulate adaptive capabilities, increase the tone (sthenic emotions). To a certain extent, this is due to the fact that in the latter case, endorphins are released in the body, which have an analgesic (pain-relieving) effect.
According to P.K. Anokhin's theory of functional systems, emotions arise as a result of a discrepancy between the result obtained and the result of the action planned in the acceptor. If the useful adaptive result exceeds the planned one, then positive emotions arise; if the result of the activity is less than planned, then negative emotions arise that stimulate new activity. When the useful result corresponds to the acceptor, a state of emotional comfort (balance) arises.
Forms of experiencing emotions:
- mood- a general emotional state that persists for a long time in a person. The mood can be cheerful and sad, vigorous and lethargic, excited and depressive. The mood, as a rule, is not noticed, it depends on satisfaction and dissatisfaction with life, work, family, health;
- passion - sustainable deep and strong feeling which determines the direction of thoughts and actions of a person. For example, passion for computer and gambling games, hockey;
- affect(emotional storm) - a short-term violently flowing emotional reaction, which is in the nature of an emotional explosion;
- stress - a state of overstrain with great physical and mental overload.
Functions of emotions:
- estimated - generalized assessment of events; their usefulness or harmfulness. It is more obvious for such emotions as shame, hatred, anger;
- encouraging - triggers behavior to satisfy the dominant need and motivation. The motivating power of emotions is related to the fact that they represent motives in the mind, i.e. make motives conscious;
- reinforcing - the influence of emotions on the formation and extinction of conditioned reflexes, learning and memory formation. The emergence of a positive emotion during training or the development of a conditioned reflex serves as a "reward" that encourages further activity. The appearance of a negative emotion leads to the cessation of activity, the avoidance of this state as a result of appropriate behavior;
- compensatory - mobilizes the physiological and mental reserves of the body with a lack of information necessary to meet the needs;
- switching- changes the direction of behavior. It is especially clearly manifested in the competition of motives, as a result of which the dominant motivation is formed;
- communicative - provides expression and perception of non-speech forms of communication: facial expressions, gestures, gaits, intonations, postures (the language of human feelings). Up to 90% emotional interpersonal communication in oral speech occurs at a non-verbal level.
Brain structures responsible for the emergence of emotions:
- the hypothalamus (a critical structure for the emergence of emotions: transection of the trunk below it turns off emotions); is the main structure that forms the vital (biological) needs and emotions. Stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus generates positive emotions, the medial - negative;
- amygdala of the temporal lobe - ensures the release of dominant motivation and plays a decisive role in the implementation of the switching function of emotions, i.e. the choice of behavior corresponding not only to one or another motivation, but also to the conditions for its satisfaction (the influence is carried out through the caudate nucleus). With electrical stimulation, emotions of fear, anger, rage arise. Removal suppresses aggressiveness and emotions associated with it, leads to a violation of a single training that requires the participation of a strong negative emotion, disrupts sexual and eating behavior;
- hippocampus - responds to signals with a low probability of reinforcement, expands the range of retrieved engrams (traces) of memory, compensates for the lack of information in a situation of uncertainty. In the hippocampus, a memory of experienced emotions is formed;
- frontal cortex - is important for the formation of higher emotions associated with social relationships and creativity, and also ensures the socialization of biological emotions;
- temporal cortex - is involved in recognizing the emotional reactions of other people, and is also involved in the expression of emotions;
- cingulate gyrus - has the most extensive connections with other parts of the brain. Presumably, it performs the function of a higher coordinator of the brain systems involved in the formation of emotions;
- limbic system of the brain - takes part in the formation of emotions, learning and memory, has great importance in the formation of emotions accompanying aggressive-defensive, food and sexual reactions. Functional asymmetry of the hemispheres and the organization of emotions:
- left hemisphere controls predominantly positive emotions, responds faster to slides with an expression of joy, reduces the degree of anxiety;
- right hemisphere causes a shift in the emotional sphere towards negative emotions, reacts faster to slides with an expression of sadness, recognizes the emotional intonation of speech and voice coloring.
Emotions have a significant impact on the subjective state of a person: in a state of emotional upsurge, the intellectual sphere of the body works more actively, inspiration visits a person, and creative activity increases. Emotions, especially positive ones, play the role of powerful life incentives for maintaining high performance and human health. All this gives reason to believe that emotion is a state of the highest rise of the spiritual and physical forces of a person.
The human body is a complex system of connections and reactions. Everything works according to certain schemes, which amaze with their methodicalness and complexity. At such moments, you begin to be proud of what a complex chain of interactions leads to a feeling of joy or grief. I don’t want to deny any emotions anymore, because they all come for a reason, everything has its own reasons. Let's take a closer look at the physiological foundations of feelings and emotions and begin to better understand the process of our own existence.
Concepts of feelings and emotions
Emotions cover a person under the influence of a situation or any external stimuli. They come quickly and go just as quickly. They reflect our subjective evaluative thinking in relation to the situation. In addition, emotions are not always recognized; a person experiences the effect of them, but does not always understand their effect and nature.
For example, someone said a lot of nasty things to you. Your logical reaction to this is anger. About how it is perceived and what is caused, we will learn a little later. Now let's focus directly on emotions. You experience anger, you want to respond somehow, to defend yourself with something - this is As soon as the irritant disappears, the anger will end transiently.
Another thing is feelings. They are generated, as a rule, by a complex of emotions. They develop gradually, expanding their influence. Feelings, unlike emotions, are well understood and perceived. They are not a product of the situation, but demonstrate an attitude towards an object or phenomenon as a whole. To the outside world, they are expressed directly through emotions.
For example, love is a feeling. It is expressed through emotions such as joy, emotional attraction, etc. Or, for example, a feeling of hostility is characterized by hatred, disgust and anger. All these emotions, being expressions of feelings, are directed to the external world, to the object of feelings.
Important point! If a person has this or that feeling, then this does not mean at all that the object of this feeling will not be subjected to third-party emotions. You can, for example, experience irritation or anger towards a loved one. This does not mean at all that the feeling of love has been replaced by hostility. This is simply a reaction to some external stimulus, which does not necessarily come from the object to which love is directed.
Types of feelings and emotions
Initially, feelings and emotions are divided into positive and negative. This quality is determined by the subjective assessment of a person.
Further, according to their essence and principle of influence, they are divided into sthenic and asthenic. Sthenic emotions encourage a person to take action, enhance practical mobilization. These are, for example, various kinds of motivation, inspiration and joy. Asthenic, on the contrary, "paralyze" a person, weaken the work of the nervous system and relax the body. This is, for example, panic or frustration.
By the way, some feelings, such as, for example, fear, can be both sthenic and asthenic. That is, fear can both make a person mobilize, act, and paralyze and demobilize.
The concept of the foundations of emotions from the point of view of physiology
In short: the physiological foundations of emotions completely determine the process of sensory perception. In more detail, we will consider each aspect separately and draw up a complete picture.
Emotions have a reflex essence, that is, they always imply the presence of a stimulus. A whole mechanism accompanies emotion from perception to manifestation. These mechanisms are called in psychology the physiological foundations of emotions and feelings. They involve various body systems, each of which is responsible for a specific result. In fact, all this forms a whole well-functioning system for receiving and processing information. Everything is almost like in computers.
Subcortical mechanisms
The lowest level of the physiological foundations of emotions and feelings are subcortical mechanisms. They are responsible for the physiological processes and instincts themselves. As soon as a certain excitation enters the subcortex, the corresponding reaction immediately begins. To be specific: various kinds of reflexes, muscle contractions, a certain emotional state are provoked.
autonomic nervous system
Vegetative nervous system on the basis of certain emotions, it sends excitatory signals to the organs of internal secretion. For example, the adrenal glands secrete adrenaline during times of stress and dangerous situations. The release of adrenaline is always accompanied by such phenomena as blood flow to the lungs, heart and limbs, acceleration of blood clotting, changes in cardiac activity, and increased release of sugar into the blood.
First and second signal systems
In order to move on to cortical mechanisms, a rough understanding of the first and second signaling systems and the dynamic stereotype is necessary. Let's start with systems.
The first signaling system is characterized by perceptions and sensations. It is developed not only in humans, but also in all animals. These are, for example, visual images, taste reminders and tactile sensations. For example, the appearance of a friend, the taste of an orange, and touching hot coals. All this is perceived through the first signal system.
The second signaling system is speech. It is only in a person and therefore only a person is perceived. In fact, this is any reaction to the spoken words. At the same time, it is inextricably linked with the first signaling system and does not function by itself.
Example, we hear the word "pepper". By itself, it does not carry anything, but in conjunction with the second signal system, meaning is formed. We imagine taste, features and appearance pepper. All this information, as already mentioned, is perceived through the first signaling system and remembered.
Or another example: we hear about a friend. We perceive speech and before our eyes his appearance appears, we remember his voice, gait, etc. This is the interaction of two signal systems. Later, on the basis of this information, we will experience certain feelings or emotions.
dynamic stereotype
Dynamic stereotypes are some behavioral sets. Conditioned and unconditioned reflexes form a certain complex. They are formed by the constant repetition of any action. Such stereotypes are quite stable and determine the behavior of an individual in a given situation. In other words, it is something like a habit.
If a person performs certain actions at the same time over a long period, for example, doing gymnastics in the morning for two years, then a stereotype is formed in him. The nervous system facilitates the work of the brain by remembering these actions. Thus, there is less consumption of brain resources, and it is freed up for other activities.
Cortical mechanisms
Cortical mechanisms control the autonomic nervous system and subcortical mechanisms. They are decisive in the concept of emotions and their physiological basis. These mechanisms are considered to be the main ones in relation to the last two. They form the concept of the physiological foundations of emotions and feelings. It is through the bark hemispheres the brain passes the basis of higher nervous activity person.
Cortical mechanisms perceive information from signaling systems, converting them into Emotions, in the context of cortical mechanisms, are the result of the transition and functioning of dynamic stereotypes. Therefore, it is precisely in the principle of the work of dynamic stereotypes that the basis of various emotional experiences lies.
General patterns and principle of operation
The system described above functions according to special laws and has its own principle of operation. Let's consider in more detail.
First, external or internal stimuli are perceived by the first and second signal systems. That is, any speech or sensation is perceived. This information is transmitted to the cerebral cortex. After all, we remember that it is the cortical part that connects with the signaling systems, perceiving pathogens from them.
Further, the signal from the cortical mechanisms is transmitted to the subcortex and the autonomic nervous system. Subcortical mechanisms form instinctive behavior in response to a stimulus. That is, complicated unconditioned reflexes begin to work. For example, you want to run away when you're scared.
The vegetative system causes corresponding changes in the processes in the body. For example, the outflow of blood from the internal organs, the release of adrenaline into the blood, etc. As a result, changes in the physiology of the body appear, leading to various reactions: muscle tension, heightened perception, etc. All this serves to help instinctive behavior. In case of fear, for example, it mobilizes the body for a forced march.
These changes are then again transmitted to the cerebral cortex. There they come into contact with the existing reactions and act as the basis for the manifestation of one or another emotional state.
Patterns of feelings and emotions
For feelings and emotions, there are some patterns that determine the way of functioning. Let's consider a few of them.
We all know that if you do something constantly, it quickly gets boring. This is one of the main ones. When an irritant constantly and for a long time affects a person, the feeling is dulled. For example, after a week of work, a person experiences a blissful feeling from rest, he likes everything, and he is happy. But if such a rest continues for the second week, then the feelings begin to dull. And the longer the stimulus continues its impact, the less clearly the feeling is felt.
Feelings caused by one stimulus are automatically transferred to the whole class of similar objects. Now all the things that are homogeneous with the stimulus that evoked the emotion are attributed to the experienced feeling. For example, a man was cruelly deceived by one dishonorable woman and now has hostile feelings towards her. And then bam! Now for him all women are dishonorable, and he feels a hostile attitude towards all. That is, the feeling was transferred to all objects homogeneous with the stimulus.
One of the most famous patterns is sensory contrast. Everyone knows that the most pleasant rest is after hard work. This, in fact, is the whole principle. Opposite feelings, which alternately arise under the influence of different stimuli, are felt much more acutely.
Physiological basis of memory
The physiological basis of memory is the nervous processes that left traces of reaction in the cerebral cortex. This primarily means that any processes caused by external or internal stimuli do not pass without a trace. They leave their imprint, forming a blank for future reactions.
The physiological foundations and psychological theories of emotions make it clear that the processes in the cerebral cortex during memory are identical to the processes during perception. That is, the brain does not see the difference between a direct action and a memory or idea of it. When we remember a learned equation, the brain perceives it as another memorization. That is why they say: "Repetition is the mother of learning."
Such a thing, of course, will not work with exercise. For example, if every day you imagine how you lift a barbell, muscle mass will not increase. After all, the identity between perception and memory occurs precisely in the cerebral cortex, and not in muscle tissues. So this physiological basis of memory only works for the contents of the skull.
And now about how, after all, the reactions of the nervous system affect memory. As already mentioned, all reactions to stimuli are remembered. This leads to the fact that when confronted with the same stimulus, the corresponding dynamic stereotype will be activated. If you touch a hot kettle once, the brain will remember it and will not want to do it a second time.
Physiological basis of attention
The nerve centers of the cerebral cortex always function with different intensity. Observations show that the most best way for a specific activity. It is formed, of course, from experience, memory and stereotypes.
Physiology understands by attention the high intensity of the work of one or another part of the cerebral cortex. Thus, once the optimal level of functioning of a certain nerve center is selected on the basis of experience, then attention, as the intensity of a cortical area, increases. Thus, the most optimal, from the point of view of subjective perception, conditions are created for a person.
Physiological basis of motivation
Earlier we already mentioned about sthenic and Motivation just represents sthenic feeling. It encourages action, mobilizes the body.
From a scientific point of view, the physiological foundations of motivation and emotions are formed from needs. Such a desire is processed by subcortical mechanisms, put on a par with complicated instincts and enters the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres. There it is processed as an instinctive desire, and the brain, using the influence of the autonomic system, begins to look for ways to satisfy the need. It is due to this functioning of the body that resources are mobilized, and things are much easier.
Human emotions are important in optimizing all the activities of the body. Negative emotions are a signal of a violation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body and thereby contribute to the harmonious flow of life processes. Positive emotions are a kind of "reward" to the body for the work it expended in the process of achieving a useful result. Thus, positive emotions are the strongest means of fixing conditioned reflex reactions that are useful for the body (P.V. Simonov). Consequently, positive emotions are the strongest stimulus for evolution, a disturber of peace and stabilization, without which social progress itself would be impossible. Indeed, in a person, positive emotions are always caused by success in his activities, for example, a scientific discovery made, an excellent mark in an exam.
Emotions contribute to the concentration of all the body's reserves necessary for the fastest achievement of a beneficial effect. This concentration of all the forces of the body helps us to successfully cope with difficulties. This is especially important in stressful situations resulting from the action of superstrong stimuli on the body, such as life-threatening factors, or great physical and mental stress.
emotional states.
Modern man lives much more restlessly than his ancestors. A sharp expansion of the volume of information gives him the opportunity to know more, and, consequently, to have more reasons and reasons for unrest and anxiety. An increase in a fairly large category of people in the level of general anxiety, which is stimulated by local wars, an increase in the number of disasters, man-made and natural, in which a lot of people get physical and mental injuries or simply die. No one is immune from getting into such situations. It is natural for a person to fear death, physical and mental injury. But under normal conditions, this fear is in a suppressed state and is not realized. When a person finds himself in a dangerous situation or becomes an eyewitness to it (even indirectly, while watching TV or reading a newspaper), then the suppressed feeling of fear comes to the conscious level, significantly increasing the level of general anxiety.
Depending on the strength, duration and stability, emotions are divided into separate types, in particular, stress, affect, mood.
Stress.
Frequent conflicts (at work and at home) and great internal stress can cause complex mental and physiological changes in the human body, strong emotional stress can lead to a state of stress. Stress is a state of mental tension that occurs in the process of activity in the most complex and difficult conditions. Life sometimes becomes a harsh and ruthless school for a person. The difficulties that arise on our way (from a minor problem to a tragic situation) cause in us emotional reactions of a negative type, accompanied by a whole range of physiological and psychological changes.
There are various scientific approaches to understanding stress. The most popular is the stress theory proposed by G. Selye. Within the framework of this theory, the mechanism of occurrence of stress is explained as follows.
All biological organisms have a vital innate mechanism for maintaining internal balance and balance. Strong external stimuli (stressors) can upset the balance. The body reacts to this with a protective-adaptive reaction of increased excitation. With the help of excitation, the body tries to adapt to the stimulus. This non-specific excitation for the body is a state of stress. If the irritant does not disappear, stress intensifies, develops, causing a number of special changes in the body - the body tries to protect itself from stress, prevent it or suppress it. However, the possibilities of the body are not unlimited and, under strong stress, they are quickly depleted, which can lead to illness and even death of a person.
Emotions are mental reactions that reflect the subjective attitude of the individual to objective phenomena.. Emotions arise as part of motivations and play an important role in shaping behavior. There are 3 types emotional states(A.N. Leontiev): 1. Affects are strong, short-term emotions that arise on an already existing situation, for example, fear, horror with an immediate threat to life. 2. Actually emotions - long-term states that reflect the attitude of the individual to the existing or expected situation (sadness, anxiety, joy). 3. Objective feelings - constant emotions associated with any object (feeling of love for a particular person, for the Motherland, etc.). Functions of emotions: 1. Estimated. They allow you to quickly assess the need and the possibility of its satisfaction. For example, when feeling hungry, a person does not count the calorie content of the food available, the content of proteins, fats, carbohydrates in it, but simply eats in accordance with the intensity of the feeling of hunger, i.e. the intensity of the corresponding emotion. 2. Encouraging function. Emotions stimulate goal-directed behavior. For example, negative emotions during hunger stimulate food-procuring behavior. 3. Reinforcing function. Emotions stimulate memory and learning. For example, positive emotions with material reinforcement of training. 4. Communicative function. It consists in transferring one's experiences to other individuals. Facial expressions convey emotions, not thoughts.
Emotions are expressed by certain motor and vegetative reactions. For example, with certain emotions, corresponding facial expressions and gestures arise. The tone of skeletal muscles increases, the voice changes, the heartbeat quickens, blood pressure rises. This is due to the excitation of motor centers, centers of the sympathetic nervous system and the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands (printing). The main role in the formation of emotions belongs to the hypothalamus and the limbic system, especially the amygdala. When it is removed from animals, the mechanisms of emotions are violated. When the amygdala is irritated, a person develops fear, rage, and anger. In humans, the frontal and temporal areas of the cortex play an important role in the formation of emotions. For example, if the frontal areas are damaged, emotional dullness occurs. The significance of the hemispheres is also not the same. With a temporary shutdown of the left hemisphere, negative emotions arise - the mood becomes pessimistic. When the right one is turned off, the opposite mood occurs. It has been established that the initial feeling of complacency, carelessness, lightness when drinking alcohol is explained by its effect on the right hemisphere. The subsequent worsening of mood, aggressiveness, irritability is due to the effect of alcohol on the left hemisphere. Therefore, in people with an underdeveloped left hemisphere, alcohol almost immediately causes aggressive behavior. In healthy people, the emotional predominance of the right hemisphere is manifested by suspiciousness, increased anxiety. With the dominance of the left, these phenomena are absent (test of emotional asymmetry of the brain - humor). An important role in the emergence of emotions belongs to the balance of neurotransmitters. For example, if the content of serotonin in the brain increases, mood improves; its deficiency leads to depression. The same picture is observed with a lack or excess of norepinephrine. Suicides have been found to have significantly reduced brain levels of these neurotransmitters.
From a physiological point of view, an emotion is an active state of a system of specialized brain structures that prompts a change in behavior in the direction of maximizing or minimizing this state (the regulatory function of emotions; from which the presentation of the physiological mechanisms of willpower as control of one's emotions follows).
Emotions manifest themselves as external behavior and as a restructuring of the internal environment of the body, with the goal of adapting the body to its environment. For example, the emotion of fear prepares the body for “avoidance behavior”: the orienting reflex is activated, activating the brain system, the work of the sense organs is enhanced, adrenaline is released into the blood, the work of the heart muscle, the respiratory system is enhanced, the muscles tense up, the work of the digestive organs slows down, and the like. The fact that many physiological changes associated with emotions are manifested in the activation of the autonomic nervous system is of great practical importance: in clinical and research practice, such parameters as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, pupillary response, skin condition are widely used ( including skin hair elevation), activity of external secretion glands, blood glucose level. Before emotions appear in consciousness (at the level of the cerebral cortex), information from external receptors is processed at the level of the subcortex, hypothalamus, hippocampus, reaching the cingulate gyrus. The system of the hypothalamus and amygdala provide the reaction of the body at the level of the simplest, basic forms of behavior.
Even Charles Darwin, characterizing emotions in evolutionary terms, drew attention to their connection with instinctive forms of behavior. As he showed, facial reactions are characteristic even of children blind from birth. Such basic manifestations of emotions are innate in nature and are characteristic not only of humans, but also of higher animals - primates, dogs and others
9. Theories of emotions (James-Lange, Freud, Cannon-Bard, Papeize)
The James-Lange Theory of Emotions The theory according to which the emergence of emotions is due to the state of internal organs and behavioral reactions. According to James, "We are sad because we cry, we are afraid because we tremble, we are happy because we laugh." At the same time, Lange attached particular importance to the state of innervation of the vessels. The theory was proposed independently of each other in the 80s. 19th century American psychologist W. James (1842–1910) and Danish psychologist C. Lange (1834–1900).
a philosophical and psychological theory that considers the emergence of emotional states as a consequence of certain movements, gestures, physiological changes, and not vice versa. According to W. James, we are sad because we cry; we are afraid because we tremble; we rejoice because we laugh. Peripheral organic changes, which are usually considered as a consequence of emotions, are declared to be their causes. According to this theory, in order to achieve positive emotions, you must first artificially force yourself to smile - and then positive emotions will gradually appear.
Freud's psychoanalytic concept of emotions.
Psychoanalysis draws attention to the energy component of mental processes, considering the emotional sphere in this regard. Despite the fact that the proposed abstract version of the interpretation of emotions had little to do with the organization of the brain, it later attracted the attention of many researchers who dealt with this problem. According to Sigmund Freud, the unconscious is a source of excess energy, which he defines as libido. The structural content of libido is determined conflict situation, which took place in the past and is encrypted on an instinctive level. It should be noted that the facts that testify to the pronounced plasticity of the nervous system do not agree well with the idea of a “preserved” conflict, not to mention the fact that biological meaning is poorly visible in this hypothesis. Over time, psychoanalysis came to the conclusion that the energy of the “unconscious” is not stored in the structures of the brain as a “developmental defect”, but is a consequence of the appearance of an excess of energy in the nervous system, as a result of an imperfect adaptation of the individual in society. For example, A. Adler believed that most children initially have a sense of their own imperfection, in comparison with "omnipotent adults", which leads to the formation of an inferiority complex. Personal development, according to Adler's views, depends on how this complex will be compensated. In pathological cases, a person may try to compensate for his inferiority complex by striving for power over others.
PEIPES, THE THEORY OF EMOTIONS One of the first theoretical attempts to identify specific cortical mechanisms underlying emotion. This theory was developed by J. W. Peipez in the 1930s and proposed three interconnected systems (sensory, hypothalamic, and thalamic) that were supposed to be combined in the cortex, where the "psychological product" of emotions arose. This theory has not been subjected to rigorous anatomical scrutiny, but it has been influential in recognizing the involvement of the hypothalamus and drawing attention to the integrative role of the cortex.
10. Post-traumatic stress reactions, primary and secondary symptoms.
11. Post-traumatic stress reactions, developmental phases, types of mental disadaptation. (+ see 7, 10)
12. Psycho-emotional stress (PES). Classification. Syndromes. Signs of PES.
Syndromes:
Inertness, neuro-psychic disorders, BA, coronary artery disease, Sax. diabetes.
| Genesis is unclear. Possibly due to nerves. | ||||
13. Stress of life, professional stress
14-16. Correction of functional states. Rationale. Schemes and indications for use.
15. Means and methods of correction (physiological, vitamin therapy, pharmacological). (cm14)
16. Means and methods of correction (psychological, psychophysiological) (see 14).
17-20. Methods for assessing the functional state. Parameters of sensory activity.
18. Methods for assessing the functional state. Parameters of activity of physiological systems.
19. Psychological methods for assessing the functional state and performance.
20. Mathematical Methods evaluation of physical and mental work.
21. Specific functional states. Monotony, fatigue, mechanisms, diagnostics.
22. Specific functional states. Hypokinesia. Neuro-emotional stress, mechanisms, diagnostics. (See 21)
23. Characteristics of the human respiratory system from the standpoint of its participation in stress reactions.
Autoregulation of breathing.
Under normal conditions, no one thinks or remembers about breathing. But when for some reason there are deviations from the norm, it suddenly becomes difficult to breathe. Breathing becomes difficult and heavy with physical exertion or in a stressful situation. And vice versa, with a strong fright, tense expectation of something, people involuntarily hold their breath (hold their breath). A person has the opportunity, by consciously controlling breathing, to use it to calm down, to relieve tension - both muscular and mental, thus, autoregulation of breathing can become an effective means of dealing with stress, along with relaxation and concentration. Anti-stress breathing exercises can be performed in any position. Only one condition is obligatory: the spine must be in a strictly vertical or horizontal position. This makes it possible to breathe naturally, freely, without tension, to fully stretch the muscles of the chest and abdomen. The correct position of the head is also very important: it should sit straight and loose on the neck. A relaxed, upright sitting head stretches the chest and other parts of the body upwards to a certain extent. If everything is in order and the muscles are relaxed, then you can practice free breathing, constantly controlling it.
We will not go into detail here about what breathing exercises exist (they are easy to find in the literature), but we will draw the following conclusions:
1. With the help of deep and calm self-regulated breathing, mood swings can be prevented.
2. When laughing, sighing, coughing, talking, singing or reciting, certain changes in the rhythm of breathing occur in comparison with the so-called normal automatic breathing. It follows from this that the way and rhythm of breathing can be purposefully regulated by consciously slowing down and deepening.
3. Increasing the duration of the exhalation promotes calm and complete relaxation.
4. The breathing of a calm and balanced person differs significantly from the breathing of a person under stress. Thus, according to the rhythm of breathing, one can determine mental condition person.
5. Rhythmic breathing calms the nerves and psyche; the duration of the individual phases of breathing does not matter - the rhythm is important.
6. Human health, and hence life expectancy, largely depends on proper breathing. And if breathing is an innate unconditioned reflex, then, therefore, it can be consciously regulated.
7. The slower and deeper, calmer and more rhythmic we breathe, the sooner we get used to this way of breathing, the sooner it will become an integral part of our life.
24. The value of energy consumption in extreme conditions. Basic concepts. (but xs, I hope that I don’t get caught on copies)
25. Thermal damage to the body and their prevention. Heat stress index.
26. Adaptive responses of migrants at high latitudes.
27. Socio-psychological adaptation and performance in the Far North.
28. Adaptive reactions of migrants in low latitudes.
29. Biological significance of pain. Classification. Assessment methods.
30. chemical theory pain. Portal system of pain.
31. Pain system of pain. Anesthesia approaches.
4. Functional systems (academician PK Anokhin), scheme, classification.
The central architectonics of functional systems that determine purposeful behavioral acts of varying degrees of complexity consists of the following successive stages: -> afferent synthesis, -> decision making, -> acceptor of action results, -> efferent synthesis, -> action formation, and, finally, -> assessment of the achieved result
1. AFFERENT (from lat. afferens - bringing), carrying to or into an organ (eg, afferent artery); transmitting impulses from the working organs (glands, muscles) to the nerve center (afferent, or centripetal, nerve fibers). EFFERENT (from lat. efferens - taking out), taking out, removing, transmitting impulses from the nerve centers to the working organs, for example. efferent, or centrifugal, nerve fibers. ACCEPTOR (from lat. acceptor - accepting).
A behavioral act of any degree of complexity begins with the stage afferent synthesis. Excitation caused by an external stimulus does not act in isolation. It certainly interacts with other afferent excitations that have a different functional meaning. The brain continuously processes all the signals coming through numerous sensory channels. And only as a result of the synthesis of these afferent excitations, conditions are created for the implementation of a certain purposeful behavior. The content of afferent synthesis is determined by the influence of several factors: motivational excitation, memory, situational and triggering afferentation.
The processes of afferent synthesis, covering motivational excitation, triggering and situational afferentation, the memory apparatus, are implemented using a special modulation mechanism that provides the necessary tone of the cerebral cortex and other brain structures for this. This mechanism regulates and distributes activating and inactivating influences emanating from the limbic and reticular systems of the brain. The behavioral expression of the increase in the level of activation in the central nervous system, created by this mechanism, is the appearance of orienting-exploratory reactions and search activity of the animal.
2 Completion of the stage of afferent synthesis is accompanied by a transition to the stage decision making, which determines the type and direction of behavior. The decision-making stage is realized through a special and very important stage of a behavioral act - formation of the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of action. This is an apparatus that programs the results of future events. It actualizes the innate and individual memory of an animal and a person in relation to the properties of external objects that can satisfy the need that has arisen, as well as methods of action aimed at achieving or avoiding the target object. Often this apparatus is programmed with the entire path of searching in the external environment for appropriate stimuli..
The action result acceptor is assumed to be represented by a network of intercalary neurons covered by ring interaction. Excitation Once in this network, it continues to circulate in it for a long time. Thanks to this mechanism, long-term retention of the goal as the main regulator of behavior is achieved.
Before purposeful behavior begins to be carried out, another stage of the behavioral act develops - the stage of the action program or efferent synthesis. At this stage, the integration of somatic and vegetative excitations into a holistic behavioral act is carried out. This stage is characterized by the fact that the action has already been formed, but outwardly it is not yet realized.
3. The next stage is the actual implementation of the behavior program. Efferent excitation reaches the executive mechanisms, and the action is carried out.
Thanks to the apparatus of the acceptor of the results of an action, in which the goal and methods of behavior are programmed, the body has the ability to compare them with incoming afferent information about the results and parameters of the action being performed, i.e. With reverse afferentation. It is the results of the comparison that determine the subsequent construction of behavior, either it is corrected, or it stops as if the final result is achieved.
Therefore, if the signaling of the completed action fully corresponds to the prepared information contained in the action acceptor, then the search behavior ends. The corresponding need is satisfied. And the animal calms down. In the case when the results of the action do not coincide with the acceptor of the action and their mismatch occurs, orienting-research activity appears. As a result of this, the afferent synthesis is rebuilt, a new decision is made, a new acceptor of the results of the action is created, and a new action program is built. This happens until the results of the behavior match the properties of the new action acceptor. And then the behavioral act ends with the last sanctioning stage - the satisfaction of the need.
Classification of emotional phenomena.
1. The first group is leading emotions. Their occurrence is associated with the emergence or intensification of needs. Thus, the emergence of one or another biological need is primarily reflected in the appearance of negative emotional experiences that express the biological significance of those changes that develop in the internal environment of the body. The quality and specificity of the leading emotional experience are closely linked to the type and characteristics of the need that gave rise to it.
The second group of emotional experiences - situational emotions. They arise in the process of actions taken in relation to the goal, and are the result of comparing actual results with expected ones. In the structure of a behavioral act, according to P.K. Anokhin, these experiences arise as a result of comparing the reverse afferentation with the acceptor of the results of the action. In cases of disagreement, emotional experiences with a negative sign arise. If the parameters of the results of the action coincide with the expected emotional experiences, they are positive.
Leading emotions are most directly related to the formation of the goal of behavior. This applies to both negative and positive emotional experiences. Leading emotions with a negative sign signal to the subject about the biological significance of those deviations that occur in his internal environment. They determine the zone of search for target objects, since the emotional experiences generated by the need are directed to those objects that are able to satisfy it. For example, in a situation of prolonged fasting, the experience of hunger is projected onto food. As a result, the attitude of the animal to food objects changes. It emotionally, greedily pounces on food, while a well-fed animal can show complete indifference to food.
Purposeful Behavior- the search for a target object that satisfies the need - is motivated not only by negative emotional experiences. Ideas about those positive emotions that, as a result of individual past experience, are associated in the memory of an animal and a person with receiving a future positive reinforcement or reward that satisfies a given specific need, also have a motivating force. Positive emotions are fixed in memory and subsequently arise every time as a kind of idea of the future result when a corresponding need arises.
Thus, in the structure of a behavioral act, the formation of an acceptor of the results of an action is mediated by the content of emotional experiences. Leading emotions highlight the goal of behavior and thereby initiate behavior, determining its vector. Situational emotions that arise as a result of assessments of individual stages or behavior as a whole prompt the subject to either act in the same direction or change behavior, its tactics, and ways to achieve the goal.
According to the theory functional system, although the behavior is based on reflex principle, but it cannot be defined as a sequence or chain of reflexes. Behavior differs from the totality of reflexes by the presence a special structure that includes programming as a mandatory element, which performs the function of anticipatory reflection of reality. Constant comparison of the results of behavior with these programming mechanisms, updating the content of the programming itself and determine the purposefulness of behavior.
Thus, in the considered structure of a behavioral act, the main characteristics of behavior are clearly presented: its purposefulness and the active role of the subject in the process of constructing behavior.
Publication date: 2015-02-03 ; Read: 1168 | Page copyright infringement
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