Japanese politics in the 20th century. Japan at the end of XIX-XX centuries

Chapter 45. Hong Kong and Japan If it were not for diplomatic and missionary needs, then Hong Kong at times in the middle of the 19th century was by no means a picturesque coastal town. But again, the ubiquitous British saw in this corner of China, again, a trade and economic fount. Himself

The mythical first emperor ascended the throne

Wikimedia Commons

The information available in the ancient Japanese mythological and historical codes made it possible to establish the date of the accession to the throne of the mythical first emperor Jimmu, from whom the imperial family in Japan allegedly originates. On this day, Jimmu, a descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, passed the enthronement ceremony in the capital he founded - in a place called Kashihara. Of course, there is no need to talk about any statehood in Japan at that time, as well as about the existence of Jimmu, and the Japanese themselves. The myth was introduced into everyday life and became part of history. In the first half of the 20th century, Jimmu's enthronement day was a public holiday, on the occasion of which the current emperor participated in prayers for the well-being of the country. In 1940, Japan celebrated 2600 years since the founding of the empire. Due to the difficult foreign policy situation, the Olympic Games and the World Exhibition had to be abandoned. The symbol of the latter was to be Jimmu's bow and the golden kite, which appeared in the myth:

“Jimmu's army fought with the enemy, fought, but could not defeat him in any way. Then suddenly the sky was overcast with clouds and hail began to fall. And an amazing golden kite flew in, and sat on the upper edge of the sovereign's bow. The kite shone and sparkled, it was like lightning. The enemies saw this and were completely confused, they didn’t even have the strength to fight. ” Nihon shoki, scroll III.

Since the defeat of Japan in 1945 in World War II, Jimmu has been approached very rarely and cautiously due to his image's strong association with militarism.

701

The first legislative code was drawn up

National Museum of Japanese History

At the beginning of the 8th century, active work continued in Japan to form institutions of power and develop norms for relations between the state and subjects. The Japanese state model had a Chinese model. The first legislative code of Japan, drawn up in 701 and enacted in 702, was called "Taihoryo". Its structure and individual provisions were based on Chinese monuments of legal thought, but there were also significant differences. Thus, the norms of criminal law in Japanese legislation were developed with much less care, which is also due to the cultural characteristics of the Japanese state: it preferred to delegate responsibility for punishing the guilty and replace the physical punishment of criminals with exile, so as not to incur ritual impurity. kegare caused by death. Thanks to the introduction of the Taihoryo code, historians call Japan in the 8th-9th centuries a "state based on laws." Despite the fact that certain provisions of the code lose their relevance by the time of its creation, no one formally canceled it until the adoption of the first Japanese Constitution in 1889.

710 year

Japan's first permanent capital founded

The development of statehood required the concentration of the court elite and the creation of a permanent capital. Until that time, each new ruler built a new residence for himself. To remain in a palace defiled by the death of a previous sovereign was considered dangerous. But in the VIII century, the model of the nomadic capital no longer corresponded to the scale of the state. Nara became the first permanent capital of Japan. The place for its construction was chosen based on geomantic Geomancy or Feng Shui- a way of orienting buildings in space, in which they were located in such a way as to receive the maximum amount of positive energy and get rid of the negative influence. ideas about the security of space: a river should flow in the east, a pond and a plain must be present in the south, roads should be in the west, and mountains should be in the north. According to the parameters of the enclosing landscape, places will later be selected for the construction of not only cities, but also the estates of aristocrats. The city of Nara in plan was a rectangle with an area of ​​25 square kilometers and copied the structure of the Chinese capital Chang'an. Nine vertical and ten horizontal streets divided the space into quarters of equal area. The central avenue of Suzaku stretched from south to north and rested against the gates of the emperor's residence. Tenno- the title of the Japanese emperor - was also a designation polar star, located motionless in the north of the sky. Like a star, the emperor surveyed his possessions, being in the north of the capital. The quarters adjacent to the palace complex had the greatest prestige; removal from the capital to the provinces could serve as a terrible punishment for an official.

769 year

Soft coup attempt

The Library of Congress

The political struggle in Japan took on various forms in different historical periods, but the common thread was the lack of attempts to take the throne by those who did not belong to the imperial family. The only exception was the monk Dokyo. Being a descendant of the seedy provincial Yuge family, he went from a simple monk to the all-powerful ruler of the country. The nomination of Dokyo was all the more surprising because the social structure of Japanese society rigidly determined the fate of a person. When assigning court ranks and distributing state positions, belonging to one or another clan played a decisive role. Dokyo appeared in the staff of court monks in the early 50s. The monks of that time not only studied Chinese literacy, which was necessary for reading sacred Buddhist texts translated from Sanskrit in China, but also possessed many other useful skills, in particular, healing. For Dokyo, the glory of a skilled healer was established. Apparently, therefore, he was sent in 761 to the sick ex-Empress Koken. The monk not only managed to heal the former empress, but also became her closest adviser. According to the Nihon Ryoiki collection of Buddhist legends, Dokyo from the Yuge clan shared one pillow with the empress and ruled the Celestial Empire. Koken ascends the throne for the second time under the name of Shotoku and, especially for Dokyo, introduces new positions that are not provided for by law and endow the monk with the broadest powers. The empress's confidence in Dokyo was boundless until 769, when Dokyo, using his faith in divination, declared that the deity Hachiman of the Usa temple wished Dokyo to become the new emperor. The empress demanded confirmation of the words of the oracle, and this time Hachiman uttered the following: “From the time of the beginning of our state to our days, it has been determined who will be the sovereign and who will be the subject. And it has not yet happened that a subject became a sovereign. The throne of the sun of heaven must be inherited by the imperial house. Let the unrighteous be expelled.” After the death of the empress in 770, Dokyo was stripped of all ranks and positions and expelled from the capital, and the wary attitude towards the Buddhist church lasted for several more decades. It is believed that the transfer of the capital from Nara to Heian, finally carried out in 794, was also caused by the desire of the state to get rid of the influence of Buddhist schools - not a single Buddhist temple was transferred to the new capital from Nara.

866

Establishing control over the imperial family

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The most effective instrument of political struggle in traditional Japan was the acquisition of family ties with the imperial house and the occupation of positions that allowed them to dictate their own will to the ruler. Representatives of the Fujiwara clan succeeded more than others in this, supplying brides to emperors for a long time, and since 866 they have achieved a monopoly right to appoint to the positions of regents. sessho and a little later (since 887) - chancellors campacu. In 866, Fujiwara Yoshifusa becomes the first regent in Japanese history who did not come from an imperial family. The regents acted on behalf of the underage emperors, who did not have their own political will, the chancellors represented the adult rulers. They not only controlled current affairs, but also determined the order of succession to the throne, forcing the most active rulers to abdicate in favor of minor heirs, who, as a rule, had family ties with Fujiwara. The regents and chancellors reach the greatest fullness of power by 967. The period from 967 to 1068 received the name in historiography sekkan jidai -"the era of regents and chancellors". Over time, they lose influence, but positions are not abolished. Japanese political culture is characterized by the nominal preservation of old institutions of power while creating new ones that duplicate their functions.

894

Termination of official relations between Japan and China

The Library of Congress

External contacts of ancient and early medieval Japan with mainland powers were limited. These were mainly exchanges of embassies with the states of the Korean Peninsula, the state of Bohai Bohai(698-926) - the first state of the Tungus-Manchus, located on the territory of Manchuria, Primorsky Krai and in the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. and China. In 894, Emperor Uda convenes officials to discuss the details of another embassy to the Middle Kingdom. middle state- self-name of China.. Officials, however, advise against sending an embassy at all. The influential politician and famous poet Sugawara Michizane especially insisted on this. The main argument was the unstable political situation in China. Since that time, official relations between Japan and China have ceased for a long time. In a historical perspective, this decision had many consequences. The absence of direct cultural influence from the outside leads to the need to rethink the borrowings made in the previous time, and to develop proper Japanese cultural forms. This process is reflected in almost all aspects of life, from architecture to belles-lettres. China is no longer considered a model state, and subsequently, Japanese thinkers, in order to justify the uniqueness and superiority of Japan over the Middle State, will often point to political instability on the mainland and the frequent change of ruling dynasties.

1087

Introduction of the abdication mechanism

The system of direct imperial control is uncharacteristic for Japan. The real policy is carried out by his advisers, regents, chancellors and ministers. This, on the one hand, deprives the ruling emperor of many powers, but, on the other hand, makes it impossible to criticize his person. The emperor, as a rule, exercises the sacred government of the state. There were also exceptions. One of the methods resorted to by emperors to gain political powers was the mechanism of abdication, which allowed the ruler, in the event of transfer of power to a loyal heir to the throne, to exercise control without being bound by ritual obligations. In 1087, Emperor Shirakawa renounces the throne in favor of his eight-year-old son Horikawa, then takes the tonsure, but continues to manage the affairs of the court, already being an ex-emperor. Until his death, which overtook him in 1129, Shirakawa would dictate his will to both the reigning emperors and the regents and chancellors from the Fujiwara family. This type of government, carried out by abdicated emperors, was called insei- "the board from the chapel." Despite the fact that the ruling emperor had a sacred status, the ex-emperor was the head of the clan, and according to Confucian teaching, all the younger members of the clan had to follow his will. The Confucian type of hierarchical relations was also common among the descendants of Shinto deities.

1192

Establishment of dual power in Japan

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Military professions, as well as forceful methods of resolving conflicts, did not have special prestige in traditional Japan. Preference was given to civil officials who were literate and able to compose poetry. However, in the 12th century the situation changed. Representatives of provincial military houses enter the political arena, among which Taira and Minamoto had a special influence. Taira managed to achieve the previously impossible - Taira Kiyomori took the position of chief minister and managed to make his grandson emperor. Dissatisfaction with the Taira from other military houses and representatives of the imperial family reaches a climax in 1180, which leads to a protracted military conflict, called the Taira-Minamoto war. In 1185, Minamoto, under the leadership of a talented administrator and ruthless politician Minamoto Yoritomo, wins. However, instead of helping the court aristocrats and members of the imperial family return to power, Minamoto Yoritomo consistently gets rid of competitors, achieves the position of the sole leader of military houses, and in 1192 receives an appointment from the emperor. sei taishogun- "the great commander, the pacifier of the barbarians." From that time until the Meiji Restoration in 1867-1868, a dual power system was established in Japan. Emperors continue to perform rituals, while shoguns, military rulers, carry out real politics, are in charge of foreign relations and often interfere in the internal affairs of the imperial family.

1281

Attempted conquest of Japan by the Mongols

In 1266, Kublai Khan, who had conquered China and founded the Yuan Empire, sent a message to Japan in which he demanded to recognize Japan's vassalage. He received no answer. Later, to no avail, several more similar messages were sent. Khubilai began preparing a military expedition to the shores of Japan, and in the fall of 1274 the fleet of the Yuan Empire, which also included Korean detachments, with a total number of 30 thousand people, plundered the islands of Tsushima and Iki and reached Hakata Bay. The Japanese troops were inferior to the enemy both in numbers and in armament, but practically did not come to a direct military clash. The oncoming storm scattered the Mongols' ships, as a result of which they had to retreat. Kublai made a second attempt to conquer Japan in 1281. The hostilities lasted a little over a week, after which the events of seven years ago were repeated: the typhoon buried most of the huge Mongol fleet and plans to conquer Japan. These campaigns are associated with the birth of ideas about kamikaze, which literally translates as "divine wind." For modern man Kamikaze are primarily suicide pilots, but the concept itself is much older. According to medieval notions, Japan was the "country of deities." The Shinto deities that inhabited the archipelago protected it from external harmful influences. This was confirmed by the "divine wind", which twice prevented Khubilai from conquering Japan.

1336

Schism within the imperial household

Harvard Art Museum

It is traditionally believed that the Japanese imperial line was never interrupted. This allows us to speak of the Japanese monarchy as the most ancient in the world. In history, however, there were periods of split of the ruling dynasty. The most serious and prolonged crisis, during which Japan was ruled by two sovereigns at the same time, was provoked by Emperor Godaigo. In 1333, the positions of the Ashikaga military house, headed by Ashikaga Takauji, are strengthened. The emperor resorted to his help in the fight against the shogunate. As a reward, Takauji himself wished to take the position of shogun and control the actions of Godaigo. The political struggle takes the form of an open military confrontation, and in 1336 the Ashikaga troops defeat the imperial army. Godaigo was forced to abdicate in favor of a new emperor, the convenient Ashikaga. Unwilling to put up with the circumstances, Godaigo flees to the Yoshino region in Yamato province, where he establishes the so-called Southern Court. Until 1392, two centers of power would exist in parallel in Japan - the Northern Court in Kyoto and the Southern Court in Yoshino. Both courts had their own emperors, appointed their own shoguns, which made it almost impossible to determine the legitimate ruler. In 1391, the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu offers a truce to the Southern Court and promises that from now on the throne will be inherited in turn by representatives of the two lines of the imperial family. The proposal was accepted, and an end to the split was put, but the shogunate did not keep its promise: the throne was occupied by representatives of the Northern Court. In a historical perspective, these events were perceived extremely negatively. Thus, in the history books written during the Meiji period, they preferred to remain silent about the Northern Court, calling the time from 1336 to 1392 the Yoshino period. Ashikaga Takauji was presented as a usurper and opponent of the emperor, while Godaigo was described as an ideal ruler. The split within the ruling house was perceived as an unacceptable event, which should not be remembered once again.

1467

The beginning of the period of feudal fragmentation

Neither the shoguns of the Minamoto dynasty nor the representatives of the Ashikaga dynasty were the sole rulers to whom all the military houses of Japan were subordinate. Often the shogun acted as an arbitrator in disputes that arose between the provincial military. Another prerogative of the shogun was the appointment of military governors in the provinces. Positions became hereditary, which served to enrich individual clans. The rivalry between the military houses for positions, as well as the struggle for the right to be called the head of a particular clan, did not bypass the Ashikaga clan. The inability of the shogunate to resolve the accumulated contradictions resulted in major military clashes that lasted 10 years. The events of 1467-1477 were called "the turmoil of the Onin-Bummei years". Kyoto, the then capital of Japan, was practically destroyed, the Ashikaga shogunate lost its powers, the country lost its central government apparatus. The period from 1467 to 1573 is referred to as the "epoch of the warring provinces". The absence of a real political center and the strengthening of provincial military houses, which begin to issue their own laws and introduce new systems of ranks and positions within their possessions, allow us to speak of feudal fragmentation in Japan of this time.

1543

Arrival of the first Europeans

The first Europeans to set foot on Japanese soil were two Portuguese merchants. On the 25th day of the 8th moon in the year 12 Tenbun (1543), a Chinese junk with two Portuguese on board was washed up at the southern tip of the island of Tanegashima. Negotiations between the aliens and the Japanese were conducted in writing. Japanese officials knew how to write in Chinese, but did not understand spoken language. Signs were drawn directly on the sand. It was possible to find out that the junk was accidentally washed up on the shores of Tanegashima by a storm, and these strange people are merchants. Soon they were received at the residence of Prince Tokitaka, the ruler of the island. Among various strange things they brought muskets. The Portuguese demonstrated the ability of firearms. The Japanese were struck by noise, smoke and firepower: the target was hit from a distance of 100 paces. Two muskets were immediately bought, and Japanese blacksmiths were instructed to set up their own production of firearms. As early as 1544, there were several weapons workshops in Japan. Subsequently, contacts with Europeans acquired an intensive character. In addition to weapons, they spread the Christian dogma in the archipelago. In 1549, the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrives in Japan. He and his students carry out active proselytizing activities and convert many Japanese princes to the Christian faith - daimyō. The specificity of the religious consciousness of the Japanese assumed a calm attitude towards faith. The adoption of Christianity did not mean the rejection of Buddhism and the belief in Shinto deities. Subsequently, Christianity in Japan was banned under pain of death, as it undermined the foundations state power and led to unrest and uprisings against the shogunate.

1573

The beginning of the unification of Japan

Among the historical characters of Japan, perhaps the most recognizable are the generals, called the three great unifiers. These are Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. It is believed that their actions made it possible to overcome feudal fragmentation and unite the country under a new shogunate founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu. The beginning of the unification was laid by Oda Nobunaga, an outstanding commander who managed to subdue many provinces thanks to the talent of his commanders and the skillful use of European weapons in battle. In 1573, he expels Ashikaga Yoshiaki, the last shogun of the Ashikaga dynasty, from Kyoto, making possible the establishment of a new military government. According to a proverb known since the 17th century, "Nobunaga kneaded the dough, Hideyoshi baked the cake, and Ieyasu ate it." Neither Nobunaga nor Hideyoshi, who succeeded him, were shoguns. Only Tokugawa Ieyasu succeeded in obtaining this title and ensuring its transmission by inheritance, but without the actions of his predecessors, this would have been impossible.

1592

Attempted military expansion to the mainland

Toyotomi Hideyoshi was not of noble origin, but military merit and political intrigue allowed him to become the most influential person in Japan. After the death of Oda Nobunaga in 1582, Hideyoshi deals with the warlord Akechi Mitsuhide, who betrayed Oda. Revenge for the master greatly increased Toyotomi's authority among the allies united under his command. He manages to subdue the remaining provinces and get closer not only to the heads of the military houses, but also to the imperial family. In 1585, he was appointed to the position of chancellor of the kampaku, which before him was occupied exclusively by representatives of the aristocratic Fujiwara family. Now the legitimacy of his actions was justified not only by weapons, but also by the will of the emperor. After the completion of the unification of Japan, Hideyoshi attempted an outward expansion to the mainland. The last time before that, Japanese troops participated in military campaigns on the mainland back in 663. Hideyoshi planned to conquer China, Korea and India. The plans were not destined to come true. The events from 1592 to 1598 are called the Imjin War. During this period, Toyotomi troops fought unsuccessful battles in Korea. After the death of Hideyoshi in 1598, the expeditionary force was urgently recalled to Japan. Until the end of the 19th century, Japan would not attempt military expansion to the mainland.

October 21, 1600

Completion of the unification of Japan

Art Gallery of Greater Victoria

The founder of the third and last dynasty of shoguns in Japanese history was the commander Tokugawa Ieyasu. The title of sei taishōgun was granted to him by the emperor in 1603. The victory at the Battle of Sekigahara on October 21, 1600 allowed him to take the position of head of the Tokugawa military houses. All military houses that fought on the side of the Tokugawa began to be called fudai daimyo, and the opponents tozama daimyō. The former received fertile lands and the opportunity to hold public office in the new shogunate. The possessions of the latter were confiscated and redistributed. Tozama daimyo were also deprived of the opportunity to take part in government, which led to dissatisfaction with the policies of the Tokugawa. It is the people from among the tozama daimyo who will become the main force of the anti-shogun coalition, which will carry out the Meiji restoration in 1867-1868. The Battle of Sekigahara ended the unification of Japan and made possible the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate.

1639

Issuance of a decree on the closure of the country

Wikimedia Commons

The period of rule of the shoguns of the Tokugawa dynasty, also called the Edo period (1603-1867) after the name of the city (Edo - modern Tokyo), where the residence of the shoguns was located, is characterized by relative stability and the absence of serious military conflicts. Stability was achieved, among other things, by refusing external contacts. Starting with Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the Japanese military rulers have pursued a consistent policy of restricting the activities of Europeans in the archipelago: Christianity is prohibited, the number of ships that are allowed to arrive in Japan is limited. Under the Tokugawa shoguns, the process of closing the country is completed. In 1639, a decree was issued according to which no Europeans were allowed to be in Japan, with the exception of a limited number of Dutch merchants. A year earlier, the shogunate had had to face difficulties in suppressing a peasant uprising in Shimabara, which took place under Christian slogans. From now on, the Japanese were also forbidden to leave the archipelago. The seriousness of the shogunate's intentions was confirmed in 1640, when the crew of a ship that arrived in Nagasaki from Macau to resume relations was arrested. 61 people were executed, and the remaining 13 were sent back. The policy of self-isolation will last until the middle of the 19th century.

1688

The beginning of the cultural heyday of Japan

East Asian Library - University of California, Berkeley

During the reign of the Tokugawa shoguns, urban culture and entertainment flourished. A surge of creative activity occurred during the years of Genroku (1688-1704). At this time, the playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon, who later received the nickname "Japanese Shakespeare", the poet Matsuo Basho, a reformer of the haiku genre, and the writer Ihara Saikaku, nicknamed "Japanese Boccaccio" by Europeans, creates his works. Saikaku's works were of a secular nature and described the everyday life of the townspeople, often in a humorous manner. The Genroku years are considered the golden age of theater kabuki and puppet theater bunraku. At this time, not only literature, but also crafts are actively developing.

1868

Meiji Restoration and Modernization of Japan

The Library of Congress

The rule of military houses, which lasted more than six centuries, was put to an end in the course of events that came to be known as the Meiji Restoration. A coalition of warriors from the domains of Satsuma, Choshu and Tosa forced Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the last shogun in Japanese history, to return supreme power to the emperor. Since that time, an active modernization of Japan began, accompanied by reforms in all spheres of life. Western ideas and technologies are beginning to be actively assimilated. Japan is embarking on the path of Westernization and industrialization. Transformations during the reign of Emperor Meiji took place under the motto Wakon Yosai -"Japanese spirit, Western technology", which reflected the specifics of Japanese borrowing of Western ideas. At this time, universities were opened in Japan, a system of compulsory primary education was introduced, the army was being modernized, and the Constitution was adopted. During the reign of Emperor Meiji, Japan becomes an active political player: it annexes the Ryukyu archipelago, develops the island of Hokkaido, wins the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars, annexes Korea. After the restoration of imperial power, Japan managed to participate in more military conflicts than during the entire period of the rule of military houses.

September 2, 1945

Surrender in World War II, beginning of the American occupation

The Library of Congress

World War II ended on September 2, 1945, with the signing of Japan's complete and unconditional surrender aboard the USS Missouri. Until 1951, the American military occupation of Japan will last. During this time, there is a complete reassessment of the values ​​that have been established in the Japanese mind since the beginning of the century. Such a once unshakable truth as the divine origin of the imperial family is also subject to revision. On January 1, 1946, on behalf of Emperor Showa, a decree was issued on the construction of a new Japan, containing a provision called "self-proclaimed emperor by a man." This decree also sets out the concept of Japan's democratic transformation and rejection of the idea that "the Japanese people are superior to other peoples and their destiny is to rule the world." On November 3, 1946, the new Japanese Constitution was adopted, which came into force on May 3, 1947. According to Article 9, Japan henceforth renounced "for all time from war as the sovereign right of the nation" and proclaimed the renunciation of the creation of armed forces.

1964

The beginning of the post-war reconstruction of Japan

Post-war Japanese identity was built not on the idea of ​​superiority, but on the idea of ​​the uniqueness of the Japanese. In the 1960s, a phenomenon called nihonjinron -"Thinking about the Japanese". Numerous articles written within the framework of this trend demonstrate the uniqueness of Japanese culture, the peculiarities of Japanese thinking, and admire the beauty of Japanese art. The rise of national self-awareness and the reassessment of values ​​were accompanied by world-class events held in Japan. In 1964, Japan became the host of the Summer Olympic Games, which were held in Asia for the first time. Preparations for their holding included the construction of urban infrastructure facilities that have become the pride of Japan. Between Tokyo and Osaka, the Shinkansen bullet trains, now known throughout the world, were launched. The Olympics has become a symbol of the return of the changed Japan to the world community.

By the beginning of the 20th century Japan approached the rapidly developing

economic

emerging state with a powerful capitalist

development by the industrial sector, but with many

numerous feudal remnants, especially in agriculture and the social sphere.

Japanese monopolies were closely associated with the landowners and the monarchy. It is characteristic that many Japanese corporations grew out of the old merchant monopoly trading and usury houses that arose back in the feudal era. The Japanese bourgeoisie used such forms of pre-capitalist exploitation as the enslaving contracting of children and women workers, the system of forced semi-prison dormitories, and so on. The poverty and landlessness of the Japanese peasantry ensured a constant influx of cheap labor to enterprises. As a result, the standard of living of workers in Japan was significantly lower than in other capitalist countries, and approached the standard of living in the colonies and dependent countries. Receiving large subsidies from the state, mainly through taxes squeezed out of the peasantry, the monopoly bourgeoisie directly participated in the semi-feudal exploitation of the peasantry. The Japanese monopolies used feudal vestiges in order to obtain super-profits and were interested in their preservation. The existence of a large number of feudal remnants determined the financial and economic weakness of Japanese capitalism in comparison with more developed capitalist countries.

Nevertheless, the industrial boom was accompanied by a strong concentration of capital and the growth of monopoly associations. The world economic crisis of 1900 played a major role in the development of Japanese capitalism into a monopolistic stage. The crisis contributed to the absorption of small and medium-sized enterprises by large associations. After the crisis, monopolies in Japan spread rapidly. At the same time there was a process of merging of banking and industrial capital. Concerns (zaibatsu) were the predominant form of monopoly associations of finance capital. Such major monopolies as Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Yasuda concentrated a significant share of the country's national wealth.

An important factor that contributed to the growth of monopolies was colonial expansion. There was also such an important feature of monopoly capitalism as the export of capital. Japanese firms invested in Korea, Taiwan and mainland China.

Japan's internal political situation. Russo-Japanese War

The internal political life of the country was characterized by a constant struggle between representatives of the ruling circles, acting as spokesmen for the interests of the old or the new social strata gaining strength. The result of this struggle was a gradual transfer of power from the aristocratic bureaucracy to political parties, reflecting the strengthening of the position of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie and was a consequence of the development of Japan after the Meiji revolution.

Traditionally, after the revolution of 1867-1868. the actual power was in the hands of the clan oligarchy (hambatsu) and the court aristocracy, who occupied the main government positions. By the beginning of the 20th century The most influential among the oligarchs who conceived and carried out the Meiji reforms were Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909), known as the creator of the Japanese constitution, and Yamagata Aritomo (1838-1922), a major military leader and organizer of the new Japanese army.

Economically strengthened after the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895. the bourgeoisie, trying to gain more political rights and actively influence the state course, sought to strengthen its position in political parties, primarily in the Constitutional Party (Kenseito), created in 1898 after the merger of the Liberal and Progressive parties. Representatives of the bureaucracy also began to understand that in order to better control the constitutional system, interaction with political parties represented in parliament is necessary.

Preparing for a war with a more dangerous enemy than already defeated China - Russia for the redistribution of spheres of influence in Korea and Northeast China - Japan's military circles were counting on a large-scale militarization program. With the support of the emperor, Marshal Yamagata passed a law according to which the military and naval ministers could be appointed only from among the highest-ranking officers, consisting of military service. Having thereby made the government dependent on military circles, Yamagata carried out the financial measures necessary for the militarization program.

The opposing Yamagata grouping was created by Ito Hirobumi, who relied on the support of a part of the bourgeoisie associated with agriculture and therefore dissatisfied with the increase in land tax as a source of financing for the military program. Some industrial concerns also joined Ito. In 1900, Ito created the Seiyukai (Society of Political Friends) party, which included some members of parliament, officials, representatives of large joint-stock companies. The strengthening of Ito's position forced Yamagata to leave the post of prime minister.

However, already in 1901, the cabinet was headed by Katsura Taro (1847-1913), a prominent representative of the military circles and a protege of Yamagata. His government stepped up preparations for a military clash with Russia. In 1902, it concluded an anti-Russian military-political treaty with Great Britain, and obtained financial support from the United States.

Despite some differences between the government and the opposition on issues of financing preparations for the war, they were united in supporting its goals, and this unity only strengthened as Japanese-Russian contradictions grew.

In the war of 1904-1905. Japan inflicted heavy defeats on Russia on land and at sea. readiness Russian Empire to further struggle was undermined by internal revolutionary events. Japan, on the other hand, turned out to be economically and financially so exhausted that it hurried to consolidate the results already achieved during the war. Under the Treaty of Portsmouth (September 1905), she received "exclusive rights" in Korea, land leased by Russia on the Liaodong Peninsula, the South Manchurian Railway and the southern part of Sakhalin Island.

Strengthening the positions of monopoly capital. Japanese foreign policy after the Russo-Japanese War

Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 marked the completion of the development of Japanese capitalism into imperialism. The outcome of the war unleashed the hands of the Japanese in Korea. In November 1905, a treaty was imposed on the Korean government establishing a Japanese protectorate. In 1910, Korea was annexed and turned into a Japanese colony, despite the stubborn resistance of the Korean people, as a result of which, in particular, the first governor-general of Korea, Ito Hirobumi, was assassinated.

Having mastered the Kwantung region, Japan established itself in South Manchuria. In 1909, Japan reinforced its troops there and forced new railway agreements on China. Fortification in South Manchuria was seen by the Japanese government as a step towards further aggression in China, which intensified during the Xinhai Revolution in that country. Although the financial situation after the Russo-Japanese War was difficult, the victory and the capture of new markets revived the industry. In the first post-war year alone, more than 180 new industrial and commercial joint-stock companies emerged. And although in 1907-1908. Japanese industry experienced a recession caused by another world economic crisis, then a new upsurge came, which lasted almost until the outbreak of the First World War. The value of the gross output of Japanese industry increased from 780 million yen in 1909 to 1,372 million yen in 1914.

The Russo-Japanese War, as well as the continued militarization of the country, contributed to the development of heavy industry. There was a technical re-equipment of industry, there was a further concentration of production and the centralization of capital. Ho Japan was still an agrarian-industrial country with a predominance of the rural population.

The transformation of Japan into a major colonial power changed the balance of power in the Far East. By this time, the unequal treaties of the period of the "discovery" of Japan had finally become an anachronism. As early as 1899, new trade treaties came into force that abolished the rights of extraterritoriality and consular jurisdiction for subjects of the Western powers. And in 1911, England and the United States signed treaties with Japan that abolished all restrictions on its customs rights.

Supporting Japan, England and the USA sought to use it to weaken Russia and believed that the fruits of her victories would be reaped by more powerful British and American capital. This, however, did not happen. Japan effectively closed the South Manchurian market. The Japanese policy of expansion in China, in which Britain and the United States, in turn, claimed dominance, led to an aggravation of Japanese-British and especially Japanese-American contradictions.

Exacerbation of the class struggle. Labor and socialist movement

An organized labor movement emerged in Japan as early as the late 1890s, when trade unions of the modern type began to emerge. A prominent figure in the Japanese and international labor movement, Sen Katayama, played an outstanding role in their organization. Trade unions organized the publication of workers' magazines (the first - "Working World") and a number of strikes.

At the same time, propaganda of socialist ideas was carried out. In May 1901, the Japanese Social Democratic Party was created, which was banned on the same day, according to the law "On the protection of order and tranquility" adopted in 1900. This law outlawed trade unions and effectively banned strikes. However, the socialists launched an active propaganda activity. In November 1903, their leader Kotoku and other socialists founded the Common People's Society and began publishing the People's Newspaper, around which socialist revolutionary-democratic elements were grouped.

After the war, and not without the influence of the Russian revolution of 1905-1907. the strike movement intensified. It reached its highest point in 1907, when 57 major strikes were registered according to official figures alone. The authorities declared a state of siege and moved troops against the strikers.

The government decided to deal with the leaders of the socialist movement. In 1910, Kotoku and his wife and 24 of their comrades were arrested on false charges of organizing a conspiracy against the emperor. In January 1911, Kotoku and 11 of his associates were executed, the rest were sent to hard labor. After the Second World War, when some archives were opened, it became known that the accusation was fabricated.

On the eve of the First World War, despite the harsh police terror, the strike movement revived again. In 1913, 47 strikes were registered in Japan, and in 1914 - 50 strikes. Along with the workers, there was an upsurge in the democratic movement, reflecting the dissatisfaction of the broad masses with political lack of rights, heavy taxes, etc. The main demand of this movement, which resulted in numerous demonstrations, was universal suffrage. The struggle within the ruling camp also intensified.

In August 1914, Japan entered the war with Kaiser's Germany on the side of the Entente, but almost did not conduct military operations. It took advantage of the favorable situation to seize German possessions in the Far East and oust other capitalist countries engaged in war in Europe from the markets of Asia. This led to the accelerated growth of Japan's industry, further strengthening in the economy and domestic politics positions of big capital.

The main efforts of Japan were directed at the same time to expansion in China. In 1915, she seized the province of Shandong and issued an ultimatum to China with a number of demands that violated its sovereignty, but were mostly accepted by it.

At the Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, Japan succeeded in transferring to it, in addition to Shandong, a mandate for the Caroline, Marshall,

The Mariana Islands, which were until then the possession of Germany. This concession was made to her in the expectation of her active participation in the intervention against Soviet Russia.

Japan after the First

world war. Washington Conference

After the end of the First World War, Japan undertook large-scale actions to seize the Russian Primorye, Eastern Siberia, and northern Sakhalin. These actions were distinguished by cruelty towards the civilian population, robbery of the occupied territories. However, as a result of the actions of the Red Army and the growing partisan struggle, the Japanese interventionists were expelled in 1922 from Siberia and the Far East. They liberated the northern part of Sakhalin only in 1925, after the establishment of diplomatic relations between Japan and the USSR.

The advantages gained by Japan during the First World War were largely canceled out by the Washington Conference of 1921-1922. It was organized by the United States, which was increasingly afraid of the strengthening of Japan. In addition to these two countries, Great Britain, France, Italy, Holland, Belgium and Portugal, as well as China took part in the conference.

At the conference, a number of treaties on China were signed, which strengthened the position of the United States and European countries at the expense of Japan. The United States achieved the refusal of Great Britain from the alliance with Japan and the return of Shandong to China. Japan was also forced to agree to a limitation of its naval armaments (in terms of tonnage) in comparison with the United States and Great Britain in a ratio of 3:5.

"Rice riots".

Growth of the Democratic Movement

The post-war strengthening of Japan's position in China and in the markets of other countries of the Far East led to a significant increase in industry and trade and provided huge profits for monopoly companies - zaibatsu. At the same time, the growth of the Japanese military and post-war economy had reverse side- the continuously increasing exploitation of the working class and the robbery of the peasantry, which, in turn, aggravated the class struggle. Its spontaneous manifestation was the so-called "rice riots", caused by the inflation of rice prices by speculators in August 1918.

In a short time, "rice riots" covered two-thirds of the territory of Japan, turning into revolutionary actions of workers and the urban poor with about 10 million participants. The popular movement embraced big cities- Osaka, Kobe, Nagoya, Tokyo, spread to the mines and mines of Kyushu, steel mills and shipyards of the Mitsubishi concern. Thus, the broad participation of industrial workers raised the spontaneous "rice riots" at first to a higher level of struggle, which in some cases developed into an armed uprising. The government brutally cracked down on the participants in the "rice riots". Over 8,000 people were arrested and thousands were killed without trial. All publications about the "rice riots" were banned, all books and magazines containing materials about them were subject to seizure.

Post-war economic crisis of 1920-1921 hit the Japanese economy, dependent on foreign markets, and aggravated social contradictions. At this stage, the growth of the socialist and general democratic movement was also facilitated by the changes that took place in the socio-economic structure of the country. During the war years, the share of qualified skilled workers in the Japanese proletariat increased significantly, especially in heavy industry.

Repressions against the strikers urged the workers to strive not only to create trade unions, but also to unite them. At the beginning of 1920, the United League of Trade Unions was created. The connection between the trade unions and the socialist movement was established, and along with economic demands, political slogans began to be put forward. At the end of 1920, the Socialist League was created, uniting ideologically heterogeneous groups and organizations (socialists, anarchists, communists), and in July 1922 in Tokyo, representatives of socialist groups led by Katayama and Tokuda proclaimed the creation of the Communist Party of Japan (CPJ). ).

However, the activities of the CPJ, as well as the social democratic movement as a whole, proceeded from the very beginning in very difficult conditions. Small in number and not having broad connections with the masses, these movements were often forced to work underground.

On September 1, 1923, a powerful earthquake occurred in Japan. It caused tens of thousands of human casualties and huge property damage, estimated at 5.5 billion yen. Taking advantage of the situation of general confusion after the earthquake, the Japanese government launched repression against left-wing movements. In March 1924, the activity of the Communist Party was temporarily suspended.

Japan Since the end of 1923, Japan, like the entire capitalist

in the period of peace, experienced a period of relative economic economic stabilization and recovery. Japanese revival

stabilization of industry after the crisis and depression (1923-1929) 1920-1922. was associated with recovery

work that began after the earthquake of September 1, 1923. In the very first days after the earthquake, the government provided assistance to large entrepreneurs, postponing all types of payments and paying compensation for the damage caused.

Nevertheless, Japan's economic and domestic political situation remained tense, as evidenced, in particular, by a large foreign trade liability. In Asian markets, Japanese entrepreneurs maintained their positions by exporting goods at extremely low prices by intensifying the exploitation of workers, which was one of the methods for the monopolies to get out of difficulties.

Such a "rationalization" of production provided the Japanese monopolies with superprofits obtained through the intensification of labor and job cuts.

The intensification of exploitation caused a new social exacerbation in the country. B 1924-1926 strikes swept, distinguished by their persistence, duration and the large number of participants.

The situation in the agricultural sector has also worsened. Since the First World War Agriculture was in a chronic crisis. The domination of monopoly capital and the persistence of semi-feudal methods of exploitation led to a deterioration in the position of the peasantry, to the activation of peasant unions and an increase in the number of conflicts. All this paved the way for the formation of a legal party based on the left trade unions and the All Japan Union of Peasants' Unions. On December 1, 1925, the Peasant Workers' Party was created in Tokyo, which was almost immediately banned and restored in March 1926 under the name of the Workers' and Peasants' Party. The leaders of the right-wing, reformist trade unions formed the Right Socialist Party.

Characteristically, the emergence of radical organizations and movements in Japanese society took place against the backdrop of police repression and extremely conservative legislation. So, for example, taking into account the growing political activity of the masses, in 1925 it was adopted new law on universal suffrage, which was to come into force in 3 years. But this law clearly limited the rights of the general population. As before, women, who make up more than half of the population (and the proletariat, in particular), did not have voting rights. The age limit for voters was set at 30 years, the residency requirement was set at 1 year, which significantly reduced the number of voters among workers who were forced to change their place of residence in search of work, as well as peasants who moved to the city for the same purpose. Everyone who received private or public benefits was deprived of the right to participate in elections, i.e. e. poor.

At the same time, the law "on the protection of public peace" was adopted and immediately entered into force, popularly called the law "on dangerous thoughts." It provided for imprisonment or hard labor for a period of 100 years for members of organizations that have "the purpose of changing the state system or destroying the system of private property." A lot of things could fit under the “change in the political system”, for example: the struggle for a more progressive electoral law, a constitution, etc.

Ho, despite the repression and terror, the political and economic struggle continued. In particular, on December 4, 1926, the CPJ began its activities again.

Intraparty struggle. Activities of government offices

The results of the Washington Conference, which were negative for Japan, pushed the military circles and political parties towards rapprochement. Having pledged to limit its armaments, Japan could no longer directly increase its military budget, so the army needed the support of the parties and the financial and industrial circles behind it to increase military power through modernization. Since this period, the practice of governing party cabinets has gradually been established, bringing Japan closer to the norms of the political life of Western states.

During the next stage of the struggle to protect the constitution, three parties - Seiyukai, Kenseito and Kakushii kurabu (Change Club) united to overthrow the next bureaucratic government headed by Kiyohara. In the elections of 1924, the coalition achieved a majority in the lower house of parliament, and the coalition cabinet was headed by Kito Takaaki. From that time until 1932, the country was governed only by party cabinets.

During this period, the role of the lower house of parliament as a body, to a greater extent than the chamber of peers, representing the interests of voters, increased significantly. In addition, members of the chamber of peers gradually began to be appointed not by the choice of the emperor from among retired high-ranking bureaucrats, but by non-governmental organizations.

An important step in the creation of party cabinets was the neutralization of the Privy Council, whose approval was required for the implementation of any decision. After the death of Ito Hirobumi, Yamagata was the permanent chairman of the Privy Council. Genro Saionji Kimmochi, seeking to weaken his faction, with the support of the emperor, ensured that henceforth the Privy Council included scientists, and not bureaucrats. Now the members of the council were usually law professors from the University of Tokyo.

At the same time, parties were merging with the bureaucracy. There was a practice of transferring retired high-ranking officials to the party leadership. Along with the aforementioned tendency towards the alliance of parties and the military, this fixed the dominance of the parties for a certain period. The difference between them boiled down to the following.

Seiyukai defended the principle of freedom in financial policy, a conservative approach to solving social problems, and an aggressive continental policy. Kenseito advocated budget cuts, a relatively constructive APPROACH to solving social problems, holding foreign policy taking into account the interests of other powers, the development of foreign trade. But in general, the ruling circles during this period were unanimous on the need for an expansionist policy, although there were disagreements regarding the methods, means and timing of expanding the boundaries of the empire, as well as the preference for the northern or southern directions of expansion.

In 1927, the so-called "Nanjing Incident" occurred in China, when soldiers of Chiang Kai-shek's army attacked foreign missions. A member of the Wakatsuki cabinet, Minister of Foreign Affairs Shidehara, who was a supporter of a moderate foreign policy line, refused to condemn Chiang Kai-shek, because he considered it desirable for Japan to cooperate with his regime. The refusal led to the fall of the Wakatsuki cabinet, and in the spring of 1927 the cabinet of General Tanaka, a supporter of an aggressive foreign and reactionary domestic policy, came to power.

Aggressive

policy

Cabinet

Tanaka put forward new principles of foreign policy, which consisted in sending Japanese troops where the representatives of Japan were in danger, and also proposed separating Manchuria and Mongolia from China in order to prevent the spread of the Chinese revolution there. In the same years, a document called the “Tanaka memorandum” became known, which outlined plans for the conquest of China, India, the countries of Southeast Asia, and then Russia and even Europe. The original of this document has not yet been found, in connection with which many Japanese and foreign researchers consider it to be fake, but the subsequent policy of Japan serves as a fairly strong justification for the opposite opinion.

Numerous and identical copies of the memorandum declared: “For the sake of self-defense and for the sake of others, Japan will not be able to eliminate the difficulties in East Asia if it does not pursue a policy of “blood and iron” ... In order to conquer China, we must first conquer Manchuria and Mongolia. In order to conquer the world, we must first conquer China. If we manage to conquer China, all the other countries of Asia Minor, India, as well as the countries of the southern seas will fear us and capitulate to us. B aggressive plans included an attack on the USSR. The growing imperialist contradictions with the main power of the capitalist world were reflected in the memorandum in the words: "... we will have to crush the USA."

It should be noted that the coming to power of the Tanaka cabinet and its policy were due to certain circumstances of the country's social life. In 1927, the pace of economic development slowed down, and there was even a slight decline. The already difficult situation of the workers worsened: there was a further "rationalization" of production, which entailed mass layoffs. The proletarian political parties and trade unions led the workers' struggle against the onslaught of the monopolies. This struggle intensified due to the fact that the government increased taxes to help failing banks and firms, thus shifting the burden of the crisis onto the shoulders of the workers and peasants. The Tanaka government was called upon to "handle" the situation.

In February 1928, elections were held according to the electoral law of 1925. Having dispersed the parliament, which passed a vote of no confidence in it, the Tanaka cabinet held elections in an atmosphere of corruption and brutal police pressure on voters. Despite the terror and arbitrariness, the left-wing parties received about half a million votes in the elections; of the Workers' and Peasants' Party, which acted in contact with the CPJ and collected 200,000 votes, two candidates entered the parliament, one of whom, Yamamoto, was killed after his first speech.

On March 15, 1928, arrests were made in major centers - Tokyo, Osaka, Kyoto, and then throughout the country. These police crackdowns were called the "KPJ Incident" and the "March 15th Storm" because the KPJ was struck first. But in reality, among the many thousands of those arrested, along with members of the Communist Party, many non-communists, trade union activists and progressive workers were thrown into prison. The repressions that began in the spring of 1928 continued in subsequent years, especially during the world economic crisis.

Japan in the first half of the 19th century

Japan entered the 19th century as a typical feudal state. Since the 18th century, the country was ruled by the Tokugawa dynasty. Back in 1603, the Emperor of Japan gave Tokugawa Ieyasu the rights of shogun (commander in chief). In reality, the power of the emperor was nominal, on his behalf the shogun ruled the country (literally, “tamed the savages”). The upper stratum of the population was made up of samurai, the second stratum were peasants, and the third stratum were artisans. Merchants were considered a lower class.

The first Europeans to visit Japan in 1652 were the Portuguese. They were followed by the British and the Dutch. The Japanese bought firearms from them. Worried that foreigners would enslave the country, the shogun mid-seventeenth century declared Japan a "closed country".

Japan in the second half of the 19th century

In the 50s and 60s of the XIX century, Japan was forced to abandon the policy of self-isolation. On the other hand, the feudal lords, fearing popular uprisings, decided to sacrifice the regime of the shogunate under the slogan of restoring imperial power. In 1867, the 15-year-old Mutsuhito was enthroned, and an armed clash broke out between the southern princes acting on behalf of the emperor and the supporters of the shogun in 1868. The shogunate fell. These events entered the history of Japan as the revolution of 1868. As a result of this revolution, the monarchy actually became a bourgeois-landlord monarchy.

In 1868-1873 bourgeois reforms were carried out. Reflecting the interests of the landlord-bourgeois circles, these reforms were intended to eliminate economic dependence country and create conditions for the development of capitalism. According to the reform:

1. To prevent the fragmentation of the country, the principalities were liquidated and prefectures were created, subject to the center.
2. A regular army was created.
3. In 1871, the caste of the untouchables was abolished.
4. Samurai were allowed to master any profession.
5. Free trade was defined.
6. Introduced monetary unit- yen.
7. The residence of the emperor was transferred from Kyoto to Edo. The new capital was renamed Tokyo. The University of Tokyo was opened.

As a result of the agrarian reform of 1871-1873: 1) the landed property princes and samurai; 2) the land became the object of sale and purchase. As a result, two-thirds of the arable land was in the hands of landowners, merchants and usurers. This reform created the conditions for the development of capitalism in the countryside, accelerating the process of stratification in society.

After the revolution of 1868, industry began to develop. The specificity of Japan was that, using the scientific and technical achievements of Western Europe and the United States, an industrial revolution was rapidly carried out. By the end of the 19th century, the industrial revolution was close to completion. The state, at the expense of the treasury, built industrial enterprises and sold them at a cheap price to private owners. In the 80s of the XIX century, the monopolies of Mitsubishi, Yasuda, Furukawa were formed.

After the implementation of bourgeois reforms, the emperor, relying on an army of the European type, suppressed the actions of the samurai, who were trying to maintain their former status. To tame the mass popular movement in the country, a law “On the Protection of Public Order” was issued. The police received the right to disperse popular demonstrations.

To reduce discontent in the country and prevent possible democratic actions in 1889, the Constitution was adopted. The Emperor wanted this Constitution to perpetuate his power. According to the Constitution:

1) the person of the emperor was declared sacred and inviolable;

2) the convocation and dissolution of parliament, the hiring and dismissal of high-ranking officials, the declaration of war and the conclusion of peace as commander in chief - the emperor reserved all these functions. The upper chamber consisted of deputies appointed by the emperor, and the lower chamber was elected (age limit - 25 years);

3) Parliament adopted laws and approved the budget;

4) the laws adopted by the parliament came into force only after approval by the emperor.

Bourgeois-liberal parties received more seats in the lower house of parliament, constituting the opposition to the government. To split the opposition, the emperor included representatives of the ruling parties in the government.

The limited domestic market of Japan and the lack of raw materials increased the country's predatory appetites. Korea was the first target. In September 1875, fire was opened on Japanese ships from Ganghwa Island, and this became a pretext for war. Japanese troops were sent to Korea. In 1876, the Ganghwa Treaty was concluded, according to which the Japanese were granted immunity and the right to duty-free trade. Korean ports were declared open to the Japanese.

Japan's aggression against Korea has led to a complication of relations with China. With the conclusion of the Tientsin Treaty of 1885, Japan gained time. The Korean problem was solved as a result of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895.

Japan at the beginning of the 20th century

At the beginning of the 20th century, Japanese capital began to influence China and Korea. One of the features of Japanese monopolies was their development on the basis of usurious and commercial capital. Japanese capitalism had a military-feudal character.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, political organizations were formed. On the initiative of Prince Ito, the Seiyukai liberal party was created in 1900, and in 1901, under the leadership of Sen Katayama, the Social Democratic Party of Japan was formed.

The struggle for spheres of influence in the Far East led to a deterioration in relations between Russia and Japan. Lease of the Liaodong Peninsula by Russia, construction of the East China railway further exacerbated the conflict.

The Anglo-Japanese Naval Alliance concluded in 1902 was a preparation for war with Russia. In January 1904, in the Korean port of Chemulpo, the Japanese fleet sank Russian ships - the cruiser Varyag and the gunboat Koreets. Thus began the Russo-Japanese War. The Japanese army in August 1904 at Liaoyang defeated the Russians. In February 1905, after a 10-month siege, Port Arthur fell.

In February 1905, near Mukden, the Japanese won again. In May, the Russian squadron was sunk in the Tsushima naval battle.