In the Middle Ages, there were courts in which witches were accused of witchcraft; these were witchcraft trials. Witchcraft meant that a person could have supernatural power, which he used on animals, natural elements, objects and people. They looked for evidence of guilt on the body, called the “seal of the devil.” The suspect was first simply examined, and then injected with a special needle. Executioners and judges tried to find ulcers, white spots, and swellings on the body of the accused that were not sensitive to a needle prick. In the 16th-17th centuries there was a strong witch hunt. They were groundlessly accused of witchcraft when one of the people complained about unexplained incidents that occurred in a neighboring house. All the women were frightened because they were extracting confessions from them about not committing terrible acts. The biggest crime among witches was the Sabbath. They flew to this gathering by air at night. In order for a woman to admit this, she was subjected to terrible torture. In legal proceedings, torture was an important criterion for processing the guilty.
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The hard life of a witch in the Middle Ages
A woman who did not agree with the court verdict was found to be in league with the devil. These witches were burned at the stake. There was no more serious crime than witchcraft. Punishments against witches increased greatly, slander was heard at lightning speed, and denunciation of a witch was well paid. The informer received all her property, and the executioners and judges were paid large salaries. Witch hunting was a very profitable business. Relying on denunciations, in many cases even children, the mentally ill and criminals were called as witnesses in trials. Mostly women were accused of witchcraft. Anyone who escaped this sentence was in constant fear, because at any moment they could be accused based on someone else's denunciation. In the Middle Ages, there were a large number of recognition methods in exposing witches who were suspected of having connections with the devil. Among these methods was the so-called “witch bathing” method. The accused of witchcraft had her big toes and big toes tied together, and pulled into the lumbar region, so that she seemed to be sitting with her knees bent. In this position they threw her into a deep pond. If the suspect drowned, then the charge against her was posthumously dropped, but if she miraculously remained alive, then it was believed that she was in touch with the devil and the accused was guilty. After this, the suspect was either burned at the stake or hanged. The burning of witches was a great spectacle, which had the purpose of notifying and panicking the assembled spectators. People came from afar to the place of execution, everyone was dressed in festive clothes. Local authorities were represented by: the bishop, priests and canons, members of the town hall, judges and assessors. Finally, bound sorcerers were brought in on carts, accompanied by executioners. Driving past the spectators to the execution was not an easy ordeal, because the people did not miss the opportunity to mock and laugh at the convicted witches as they went on their final journey. When the accused finally arrived at the place of execution, the servants nailed them to the posts with chains and covered them with dry brushwood, straw and logs. Then a solemn ritual began, in which the preacher warned the gathered people against the deceit of the devil. After this, the executioner lit the fire. When the authorities went home, the servants looked after the fire until only ashes remained from the “witches’ fire.” The executioner carefully raked up all the ashes and scattered them to the wind so that nothing would remind them of the blasphemous deeds of the devil’s helpers. Witches of the Middle Ages and sorcerers are the evil spawn of the devil, they bring bad weather, steal milk, take away the strength in the legs, force people to love and intercourse.
Photo: Vladimir Nikulin/Rusmediabank.ru
Of course, you've heard about how easy it was in the Middle Ages to end up at the stake for witchcraft. Very often, this did not require performing any magical acts at all. There were a lot of “signs” by which you could be recognized as a witch or sorcerer. Here are some of them.Being female
Women were considered more sinful than men, and therefore they were expected to worship the devil more often. Therefore, the risk of being accused was much higher for them.Old age
It was believed that all older women were potential. Older people sometimes tend to behave inappropriately. If an old woman looked at a child and he soon fell ill, the child’s mother knew very well who was to blame... Therefore, many old women were put on trial for witchcraft and executed only because of their advanced age.
Too young
Children, under pressure from adults, could easily admit to actions they did not commit. So, four-year-old Dorothy Goode was sent to prison along with her “witch” mother. The girl admitted everything that was attributed to her. Dorothy's mother was hanged in 1692, but the child was still released after nine months of imprisonment. However, the baby lost her mind forever.
Poverty and vagrancy
Often attributed to homeless people and beggars. Those who did not have their own home, wandered, begged, were not trusted, because they could come into contact with people in order to harm them. Therefore, they were often arrested for witchcraft.
Prosperity
Rich and wealthy people were always envied, so neighbors could say anything about such a person. But again, women, especially single ones, suffered the most. It was believed that it was difficult for a woman to live without the support of a man, and if a person did not have a husband, father, brothers or sons, and at the same time was not in poverty, she aroused suspicion. People began to believe that she obtained her wealth with the help of black magic. And all that was needed for accusations was a reason... Having girlfriends
If women got together without men, it always looked suspicious, because there was a possibility that the friends were performing rituals of devil worship. It was even more dangerous to quarrel with your friends, since they could come up with things about you that would inevitably lead to accusations of witchcraft. However, it was enough for a man to cross someone’s path for all the dogs to be pinned on him. But this happened less often.Midwife's profession
Midwives usually understood medicinal herbs and many other things that go against Christian beliefs, therefore, although everyone resorted to their services, they were feared and shunned. And at the first opportunity - for example, if the birth was unsuccessful and the child died or remained crippled, they were accused of conspiring with the devil.
Presence of extramarital affairs
During the Puritan era, women were completely banned. Moreover, even rape could not serve as an excuse for “fornication.” And if a woman gave birth to a child from someone unknown, they believed that the baby was from the devil. So, in 1651, the unmarried Alice Lake from Dorchester was declared a witch because “she was a harlot and gave birth to a child.” Under torture, the unfortunate woman finally admitted that her lover was Satan himself, and the child was his... She was sentenced to hang. Presence or absence of children
If there were too many children in a family, it caused controversy, especially if there was an infertile couple living next door. It was believed that through witchcraft, witches could steal happiness from other people. But if someone was infertile or unable to produce more than one child, this also aroused suspicion, since in those days it was believed that such families were under a devilish curse.
Behavior that does not fit into the general framework
If a woman was “odd”, behaved too impudently or stubbornly, this could also become a reason for accusations of witchcraft. It was believed that it was the devil who was pushing for such behavior. And have not evil and rude women been called witches at all times? Various bodily defects
Noticeable birthmarks or the presence of a third nipple were all interpreted as a "devil's mark." According to legend, through such a mark various animals attached themselves to the witch - for example, dogs, cats or snakes, which drank her blood and helped her in witchcraft. For example, lame men were treated the same way, since lameness was considered a property of the devil.Spoiled dairy products
If spoiled butter or milk was found in the housewife’s cellar, she could also easily be considered a witch. The fact is that rituals of black magic could supposedly lead to the souring of these products.Fortune telling or clairvoyance
As you know, the Bible prohibits “sorcery.” Therefore, any attempts deserved punishment and death. Thus, the black maid Tituba from the notorious city of Salem suffered only for inviting young girls to name the names of their future husbands. Of course, she was reported on, and she became one of the participants in the memorable Salem witch trials.Violation of any biblical rules or laws
If a person did not act as the Bible prescribed, he could be accused of witchcraft. The reason for this could be, for example, non-observance of the Sabbath (on this day one could neither light a fire, nor trade, nor travel); sowing more than one type of seeds on a field; touching a pork carcass; wearing clothes made of more than one type of fabric; cutting hair in a circle or braiding it... At least that's what Puritanism said.Curious, how many of these rules have you broken in your life? And what would have happened to you if you had lived in the Puritan era?
In Europe in the 13th century, witch trials became especially popular; they became the main enemy. It started to rain - yeah, see the red-haired beast nearby? One hundred percent she conjured! The sheep have become extinct - and there’s another beauty walking around. Clearly she is to blame!
And it doesn’t matter that it’s autumn outside, and the owner of the sheep hasn’t fed them for a week. Witches and evil sorcerers are to blame for everything. The madness continued until the 17th century.
Suspicion and Evidence
To suspect an unfortunate person of witchcraft, even an anonymous denunciation was quite enough. Then his fate, most likely, was tragic. The denunciations themselves could have arisen if it simply “seemed” or due to a random coincidence of circumstances.
Of course, it was impossible to provide any real evidence, and such a “working” accusation was used left and right.
I visited a healer, she said that I have a bad neighbor who will soon come to my house. And so it happened. My stomach starts to hurt every time I see her - the Inquisition could use such arguments as evidence that the woman is a witch.
As Reginald Scott writes in his book “Unmasking Witchcraft,” the accused had previously been beaten by her neighbors and scratched her face until she bled. Her fate is probably tragic. The woman still ended up in the hands of the Inquisition. There were even entire sets of rules that to modern man will seem simply absurd. In terms of searching for witches, Matthew Hopkins is especially famous, at whose instigation more than 200 people were sent to death in the 17th century.
Signs that a Woman is a Witch (William Perkins, Discourse on the Accursed Art of Witchcraft, 1608):
- persistent suspicions of people living with or near the accused;
- if the other accused “turns you in”;
- if after a “spell” or scolding someone casts, major trouble follows;
- if misfortune follows a health threat;
- if the suspect is the son, daughter, servant or companion of a witch who has already been convicted;
- if a devil's mark is found on the suspect's body (this is a mole!);
- if the suspect changes his testimony during interrogation.
One of the most resonant pieces of evidence was that used against Mrs. Julian Cox in 1663. The woman was caught and brought to the witch hunter (by the way, there was such a profession). According to him, the man was chasing a rabbit. Fluffy ran into the bushes. The hunter is after him. And there was only Mrs. Cox in the bushes. Later, at the trial, one witness recalled how a woman (a lady in the body, by the way) flew through the window on a broom. Well, after such irrefutable evidence, you can, in general, guess about her fate.
Torture or the search for the "devil's mark"
Witches were tortured until they admitted their guilt. The fact is that in Europe there was an opinion: a witch cannot be executed before she admits her guilt - there will be no effect. The beast will be reborn, and that’s all.
True, theologian Selvester Prieras generally came up with a theory according to which the “I confessed - let’s execute” scheme also does not work. According to his version, the witch must be tortured so that she experiences the torment that those who suffered from her atrocities had to experience.
Beautiful young women could be raped during this “phase.” This happened to the wife of the councilor of justice, Frau Peller, whose sister in 1631 rejected the advances of judge Franz Buirman. Well, like courtship - she simply refused to sleep with him. The executioner's assistant attacked Peller.
In 1643, a similar thing happened to Madeleine Bavan's sister, who was also accused of witchcraft. It was believed that the executioners were not tormenting the detained women, but were “looking for the mark of the devil.”
One of the tortures was called the “witch’s chair,” and after it the women were ready to confess to anything. This is a design that looks like an ordinary high chair. Only a lot of stakes stick out from it, which dig into the victim’s skin. If suddenly the ladies did not confess right away, they were “made more comfortable.”
During this same stage, the witches were given only salty food, even mixing salt into their drinks. That is, the person under torture was tormented by unbearable thirst.
The second stage is the rack. The victim was stretched out until she gave up her accomplices. Handed over. Always. Often nonexistent. The same stage provided for “additional torture for special types of crimes.” Among them are cutting off limbs, torture with tongs, and so on.
Sometimes this stage could still be canceled. So, in 1628, two 11-year-old girls who were suspected of making wax dolls to kill people were given a “special sentence” - they were burned without a second stage of torture.
Not everyone lived to see the third stage and the actual execution. In the protocols in such cases they wrote that “the devil broke the witch’s neck” or did something similar, no less terrible.
Many witches said before their death that they were outright lying. Thus, confessor Michael Stapirius recalled how in the 30s of the 15th century a woman told him before her death that she could not help but “start talking.”
I can't stand it if even a fly lands on my legs. It’s better to die 100 times than to endure such torment,” she explained.
Whether the so-called witch confessed to all mortal sins or not, she still faced execution. The authorities justified this as follows: “Execute in order to prevent the devil from overthrowing the divine world order.” The executioners were sure (or they assured the people) that this was how they were saving the doomed woman, since she would not sin even more.
Any judge who tried to recognize a “witch” as a woman who had nothing to do with witchcraft also faced the fire.
Before being burned, witches were first strangled with a noose or garrote. Many remained silent in the hope that the executioner would not notice and they would not be burned alive, but would be strangled. Demonology researcher Peter Bensfeld noted that the Inquisition was lenient towards “overzealous” executioners. It was believed that in this way the witch was saved from another sin - despair.
The survivors were sent to the stake. Legal expert Jean Bodin recommended burning witches over low heat. To do this, still wet branches were lit.
7 rules of a "real judge"
- If the prisoner refuses to talk, you need to demonstrate other tortures to him.
- The judge could promise to spare the witch's life. But in reality it was about eternal imprisonment on bread and water.
- If the accused says he is unwell, pour boiling water into his armpits.
- The judge must not renounce the full severity of the torture, even if he fears that the accused will die.
- In order for the prisoner not to commit suicide, there must be guards next to him at all times.
- You can show leniency towards young witches. In particular, it is possible to replace execution with eternal exile for a 9-12 year old girl. Or burn it, but bypassing some stages of torture.
- Pregnant witches can have their execution delayed until the baby is born and is one month old.
The call to “Burn the Witch” used to be often heard in relation to young and beautiful women. Why did people prefer this method of execution for sorcerers? Let's consider how cruel and strong the persecution of witches was in different eras and in different countries peace.
In the article:
Medieval witch hunt
Inquisitors or witch hunters preferred to burn the witch, because they were sure that people who practice magic concluded. Sometimes witches were hanged, beheaded, or drowned, but witch trial acquittals were not uncommon.
The persecution of witches and sorcerers reached particular proportions in Western Europe in the 15th century. XVII centuries. The hunt for witches took place in Catholic countries. People with unusual abilities were persecuted before the 15th century, for example, during the Roman Empire and in the era of Ancient Mesopotamia.
Despite the abolition of the law on executions for witchcraft, in the history of Europe there were periodic incidents with the execution of witches and fortune-tellers (until the 19th century). The period of active persecution “for witchcraft” dates back about 300 years. According to historians, the total number of executed people is 40–50 thousand people, and the number of trials of those accused of conspiring with the Devil and witchcraft is about 100 thousand.
Witch burning at the stake in Western Europe
In 1494, the Pope issued a bull (a medieval document) aimed at combating witches. Convinced him to make a decree Heinrich Kramer, better known as Heinrich Institoris- an inquisitor who claimed to have sent several hundred witches to the stake. Henry became the author of "The Witches' Hammer" - a book that told and fought with the witch. The Witches' Hammer was not used by the Inquisitors and was banned by the Catholic Church in 1490.
The Pope's bull became the main reason for the centuries-long hunt for people with magical gifts in Christian countries of Europe. According to statistics from historians, the most people were executed for witchcraft and heresy in Germany, France, Scotland and Switzerland. The least hysteria associated with the danger of witches to society affected England, Italy and, despite the abundance of legends about Spanish inquisitors and instruments of torture, Spain.
Trials of magicians and other “accomplices of the Devil” became a widespread phenomenon in countries affected by the Reformation. In some Protestant countries, new laws appeared - more severe than Catholic ones. For example, a ban on reviewing cases of witchcraft. Thus, in Quedlinburg in the 16th century, 133 witches were burned in one day. In Silesia (now the territories of Poland, Germany and the Czech Republic), a special oven for burning witches was erected in the 17th century. Over the course of a year, the device was used to execute 41 people, including children under five years of age.
Catholics were not too far behind Protestants. Letters from a priest from a German town addressed to Count von Salm have been preserved. The sheets date back to the 17th century. Description of the situation in his hometown at the height of the witch hunt:
It seems that half the city is involved: professors, students, pastors, canons, vicars and monks have already been arrested and burned... The chancellor and his wife and the wife of his personal secretary have been captured and executed. At Christmas Holy Mother of God They executed a pupil of the prince-bishop, a nineteen-year-old girl, known for her piety and piety... Three-four-year-old children were declared lovers of the Devil. Students and boys of noble birth aged 9–14 were burned. In conclusion, I will say that things are in such a terrible state that no one knows who to talk to and cooperate with.
The Thirty Years' War became a good example of the mass persecution of witches and accomplices of evil spirits. The warring parties accused each other of using witchcraft and powers given by the Devil. This is the largest war on religious grounds in Europe, and, judging by statistics, up to our time.
Witch Searches and Burnings - Background
Witch hunts continue to be studied by modern historians. It is known why the Pope's witch bull and the ideas of Henry Institoris were approved by the people. There were prerequisites for the hunt for sorcerers and the burning of witches.
At the end of the 16th century, the number of trials and people sentenced to death by burning at the stake increased sharply. Scientists note other events: economic crisis, famine, social tension. Life was difficult - plague epidemics, wars, long-term climate deterioration and crop failure. There was a price revolution that temporarily lowered the standard of living of most people.
The true causes of the events: an increase in the population in populated areas, climate deterioration, epidemics. The latter is easy to explain from a scientific point of view, but medieval medicine could neither cope with the disease nor find the cause of the disease. The medicine was invented only in the 20th century, and the only measure protecting against the plague was quarantine.
If now a person has sufficient knowledge to understand the causes of the epidemic, poor harvest, climate change, the medieval inhabitant did not have knowledge. The panic that the events of those years generated prompted people to look for other causes of daily misfortune, hunger, and disease. It is impossible to explain the problems in a scientific way with that baggage of knowledge, so mystical ideas were used, like witches and sorcerers who spoil the harvest and send a plague to please the Devil.
There are theories that try to explain the cases of witch burnings. For example, some believe that witches actually existed, as depicted in contemporary horror films. Some people prefer the version that says that most trials are a way to get rich, because the property of the executed was given to the person who sentenced them.
The last version can be proven. Trials of sorcerers have become a mass phenomenon where power is weak, in provinces remote from the capitals. The verdict in some regions could depend on the mood of the local ruler, and it is impossible to exclude personal gain. In states with a developed system of government, fewer "accomplices of Satan" suffered, for example, in France.
Loyalty to witches in Eastern Europe and Russia
In eastern Europe, the persecution of witches did not take root. Residents of Orthodox countries practically did not experience the horror that people living in the countries of Western Europe had to endure.
The number of witch trials in what is now Russia was about 250 for all 300 years of hunting on accomplices of evil spirits. The figure is impossible to compare with 100 thousand court cases in Western Europe .
There are many reasons. The Orthodox clergy were less concerned about the sinfulness of the flesh when compared with Catholics and Protestants. A woman as a being with a bodily shell frightened Orthodox Christians less. Most of those executed for witchcraft are female.
Orthodox sermons in Russia in the 15th–18th centuries carefully touched on topics; the clergy sought to avoid lynching, which was often practiced in the provinces of Europe. Another reason is the absence of crises and epidemics to the extent that residents of Germany, France, England and other Western European countries had to experience. The population did not search for the mystical causes of hunger and crop failure.
Burning of witches was practically not practiced in Russia, and was even prohibited by law.
The code of law of 1589 read: “And whores and women of dishonor will receive money against their trades,” that is, a fine was imposed for their insult.
There was lynching when peasants set fire to the hut of a local “witch”, who died due to the fire. A witch on a bonfire built in the central square of the city, where the population of the city had gathered - such spectacles were not observed in an Orthodox country. Executions by burning alive were extremely rare; wooden frames were used: the public did not see the suffering of those convicted of witchcraft.
In Eastern Europe, those accused of witchcraft were tested with water. The suspect was drowned in a river or other local body of water. If the body floated up, the woman was accused of witchcraft: baptism is accepted with holy water, and if the water “does not accept” the person being drowned, it means that this is a sorcerer who has renounced the Christian faith. If the suspect drowned, she was declared innocent.
America was virtually untouched by witch hunts. However, several trials of sorcerers and witches have been recorded in the States. The events in Salem in the 17th century are well known throughout the world, as a result of which 19 people were hanged, one resident was crushed by stone slabs, and about 200 people were sentenced to prison. Events in Salem repeatedly tried to substantiate from a scientific point of view: various versions are put forward, each of which may turn out to be true - hysteria, poisoning or encephalitis in “possessed” children, and much more.
How they were punished for witchcraft in the ancient world
In Ancient Mesopotamia, laws on punishment for witchcraft were regulated by the Code of Hammurabi, named after the reigning king. The code dates from 1755 BC. This is the first source to mention the water test. True, in Mesopotamia they tested for witchcraft using a slightly different method.
If the accusation of witchcraft could not be proven, the accused was forced to plunge into the river. If the river took him away, they believed that the person was a sorcerer. The property of the deceased went to the accuser. If a person remained alive after immersion in water, he was declared innocent. The accuser was sentenced to death, and the accused received his property.
In the Roman Empire, punishments for witchcraft were treated like other crimes. The degree of harm was assessed, and if the victim was not compensated by the person accused of witchcraft, the witch was subject to similar harm.
Regulations for burning alive witches and heretics
Torture of the Inquisition.
Before sentencing an accomplice of the Devil to be burned alive, it was necessary to interrogate the accused so that the sorcerer would betray his accomplices. In the Middle Ages they believed in witches' sabbaths and believed that it was rarely possible to solve a problem with just one witch in a city or village.
Interrogations always involved torture. Now in every city with a rich history you can find museums of torture, exhibitions in castles and even the dungeons of monasteries. If the accused did not die during interrogation, the documents were handed over to the court.
The torture continued until the executioner managed to obtain a confession of committing the crime and until the suspect indicated the names of his accomplices. Recently, historians have studied the documents of the Inquisition. In fact, torture during interrogations of witches was strictly regulated.
For example, only one type of torture could be applied to one suspect in one court case. There were many techniques for obtaining testimony that were not considered torture. For example, psychological pressure. The executioner could begin his work by demonstrating torture devices and talking about their features. Judging by the documents of the Inquisition, this was often enough for a confession of witchcraft.
Deprivation of water or food was not considered torture. For example, those accused of witchcraft could only be fed salted food and no water. Cold, water torture and some other methods were used in order to get a confession from the inquisitors. Sometimes prisoners were shown how other people were being tortured.
The time that can be spent interrogating one suspect in one case was regulated. Some torture instruments were not officially used. For example, Iron Maiden. There is no reliable information that the attribute was used for execution or torture.
Acquittals are not uncommon - their number was about half. If acquitted, the church could pay reparations to the person who was tortured.
If the executioner received a confession of witchcraft, and the court found the person guilty, most often the witch faced a death sentence. Despite a considerable number of acquittals, about half of the cases resulted in executions. Sometimes milder punishments were used, for example, expulsion, but closer to the 18th–19th centuries. As a special favor, the heretic could be strangled and his body burned at the stake in the square.
There were two methods of making a fire for burning alive, which were used during the witch hunts. The first method was especially loved by Spanish inquisitors and executioners, since the suffering of the person condemned to death was clearly visible through the flames and smoke. This was believed to put moral pressure on witches who had not yet been caught. They built a fire, tied the convict to a post, covered him with brushwood and firewood up to his waist or knees.
In a similar way, collective executions of groups of witches or heretics were carried out. A strong wind could blow out the fire, and the topic is still debated to this day. There were both pardons: “God sent the wind to save an innocent man,” and continuation of executions: “The wind is the machinations of Satan.”
The second method of burning witches at the stake is more humane. Those accused of witchcraft were dressed in a shirt soaked in sulfur. The woman was completely covered with firewood - the accused was not visible. A person burned at the stake managed to suffocate from the smoke before the fire began to burn the body. Sometimes a woman could burn alive - it depended on the wind, the amount of firewood, the degree of dampness and much more.
Burning at the stake gained popularity due to its entertainment value.. The execution in the city square attracted many spectators. After the residents went home, the servants continued to maintain the fire until the heretic's body turned to ash. The latter usually scattered outside the city so that nothing would remind of the machinations of the person executed at the witch’s fire. Only in the 18th century did the method of executing criminals begin to be considered inhumane.
The Last Witch Burning
Anna Geldi.
The first country to officially abolish prosecution for witchcraft was Great Britain. The corresponding law was issued in 1735. The maximum penalty for a sorcerer or heretic was one year in prison.
The rulers of other countries around this time established personal control over matters that concerned the persecution of witches. The measure severely limited prosecutors, and the number of trials decreased.
It is not known exactly when the last burning of a witch took place, since methods of execution gradually became more and more humane in all countries. It is known that the last officially executed for witchcraft was a resident of Germany. The maid Anna Maria Schwegel was beheaded in 1775.
Anna Geldi from Switzerland is considered the last witch of Europe. The woman was executed in 1792, when the persecution of witches was banned. Officially, Anna Geldi was accused of poisoning. She was beheaded for mixing needles into the master's food - Anna Geldi is a maid. As a result of torture, the woman admitted to conspiring with the Devil. There were no official references to witchcraft in the case of Anna Geldi, but the accusation caused outrage and was perceived as a continuation of the witch hunt.
A fortune teller was hanged for poisoning in 1809. Her clients claimed that the woman had bewitched them. In 1836, a lynching was recorded in Poland, as a result of which a fisherman’s widow drowned after being tested by water. The most recent punishment for witchcraft was imposed in Spain in 1820 - 200 lashes and banishment for 6 years.
Inquisitors - arsonists or saviors of people
Thomas Torquemada.
The Holy Inquisition- general name of a number of organizations catholic church. The main goal of the inquisitors is the fight against heresy. The Inquisition dealt with crimes related to religion that required a ecclesiastical court (only in the 16th–17th centuries did they begin to refer cases to a secular court), including witchcraft.
The organization was officially created by the Pope in the 13th century, and the concept of heresy appeared around the 2nd century. In the 15th century, the Inquisition began to detect witches and investigate cases related to witchcraft.
One of the most famous among those who burned witches was Thomas Torquemada from Spain. The man was distinguished by cruelty and supported the persecution of Jews in Spain. Torquemada sentenced more than two thousand people to death, and about half of those burned were straw effigies, which were used to replace people who died during interrogation or who disappeared from the sight of the inquisitor. Thomas believed he was purifying humanity, but towards the end of his life he began to suffer from insomnia and paranoia.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Inquisition was renamed the “Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.” The work of the organization has been reorganized in accordance with the laws that apply in each specific country. The congregation exists only in Catholic countries. Since the founding of the church body and to this day, only Dominican monks have been elected to significant positions.
The inquisitors protected potentially innocent people from lynching - about half of acquittals, and a crowd of fellow villagers with pitchforks would not listen to the agreed "Satan's accomplice", would not demand to show evidence, as witch hunters did.
Not all sentences were death sentences - the result depended on the severity of the crime. The punishment could be an obligation to go to a monastery to atone for sins, forced labor for the good of the church, reciting prayers several hundred times in a row, etc. Non-Christians were obliged to be baptized, and if they refused, they would face more severe punishments.
The reason for denunciation to the Inquisition was often simple envy, and witch hunters tried to avoid the death of an innocent person at the stake. True, this did not mean that they would not find reasons for imposing a "soft" punishment and would not use torture.
Why were witches burned at the stake?
Why were sorcerers burned at the stake and not executed in other ways? Those accused of witchcraft were executed by hanging or beheading, but such methods were used towards the end of the Witch War period. There are several reasons why burning was chosen as a method of execution.
The first reason is entertainment. Residents of the medieval cities of Europe gathered in the squares to watch the execution. At the same time, the measure also served as a way of putting moral pressure on other sorcerers, intimidating citizens and strengthening the authority of the church and the Inquisition.
Burning at the stake was considered a bloodless method of killing, that is, “Christian”. The same could be said about the hanging, but the gallows did not look as spectacular as the witch at the stake in the city center. People believed that the fire would purify the soul of a woman who made an agreement with the Unclean, and the spirit would be able to enter the Kingdom of Heaven.
Witches were credited with special abilities, sometimes identified with vampires (in Serbia). In the past, it was believed that a witch killed in another way could rise from the grave and continue to harm with black witchcraft, drink the blood of the living and steal children.
Most of the accusations of witchcraft did not differ much from the behavior of people even now - denunciation as a method of reprisal is still practiced today in some countries. The scale of the atrocities of the Inquisition is exaggerated to draw attention to the novelties in the world of books, video games and movies.
One of the biggest mysteries in history remains a strange insanity that swept Europe in the 15th-17th centuries, as a result of which thousands of women suspected of witchcraft went to the stakes. What was it? Malicious intent or cunning calculation?
There are many theories regarding the fight against witches in medieval Europe. One of the most original is that there was no insanity. People really struggled with dark forces, including witches that bred all over the world. If desired, this theory can be developed further.
As soon as the fight against witchcraft was stopped, revolutions began to break out here and there in the world, and terrorism began to gain more and more scope. And in these phenomena, women played a significant role, as if turning into vicious furies. And they also play a significant role in fueling the current “color” revolutions.
Pagan tolerance
Pagan religions were generally tolerant of sorcerers and witches. Everything was simple: if witchcraft was for the benefit of people, it was welcomed, if it was harmful, it was punished. IN Ancient Rome they chose punishment for sorcerers depending on the harmfulness of what they did. For example, if the person who caused harm through witchcraft could not pay compensation to the victim, he had to be injured. In some countries, witchcraft was punishable by death.
Everything changed with the advent of Christianity. Drinking, having sex on the side and deceiving one's neighbor began to be considered a sin. And the sins were declared the machinations of the devil. In the Middle Ages, the vision of the world among ordinary people began to be shaped by the most educated people of that era - the clergy. And they imposed their worldview on them: they say that all troubles on earth come from the devil and his henchmen - demons and witches.
All natural disasters and business failures were attributed to the machinations of witches. And it seems that an idea has arisen - the more witches are destroyed, the more happiness will come to all the remaining people. At first, the witches were burned individually, then in pairs, and then in dozens and hundreds.
One of the first known cases was the execution of a witch in 1128 in Flanders. A certain woman splashed water on one nobleman, and he soon fell ill with pain in his heart and kidneys and died after a while. In France, the first known witch burning took place in Toulouse in 1285, when a woman was accused of cohabiting with the devil and allegedly gave birth to a cross between a wolf, a snake and a human. And after some time, the executions of witches in France became widespread. In the years 1320-1350, 200 women went to the bonfires in Carcassonne, and more than 400 in Toulouse. And soon the fashion for massacres of witches spread throughout Europe.
World has gone mad
In Italy, after the publication of the witch bull of Pope Adrian VI in 1523, more than 100 witches began to be burned annually in the Como region alone. But most of the witches were in Germany. The German historian Johann Scherr wrote: “Executions carried out on entire masses at once began in Germany around 1580 and continued for almost a century. While the whole of Lorraine was smoking from the fires... in Paderborn, in Bradenburg, in Leipzig and its environs, many executions were also carried out.
In the county of Werdenfeld in Bavaria in 1582, one trial brought 48 witches to the stake... In Braunschweig, between 1590-1600, so many witches were burned (10-12 people daily) that their pillory stood in a “dense forest” in front of the gates. In the small county of Henneberg, 22 witches were burned in 1612 alone, 197 in 1597-1876... In Lindheim, which had 540 inhabitants, 30 people were burned from 1661 to 1664.”
Even their own record holders for executions appeared. The Fulda judge Balthasar Voss boasted that he alone had burned 700 sorcerers of both sexes and hoped to bring the number of his victims to a thousand. The Bishop of Würzburg, Philipp-Adolf von Ehrenberg, distinguished himself with particular passion in the persecution of witches. In Würzburg alone, he organized 42 bonfires, on which 209 people were burned, including 25 children aged from four to fourteen years. Among those executed were the most beautiful girl, the fattest woman and the fattest man, a blind girl and a student who spoke many languages. Any difference between a person and others seemed to the bishop to be direct evidence of connections with the devil.
And his cousin, Prince-Bishop Gottfried Johann Georg II Fuchs von Dornheim, committed even more atrocities, executing more than 600 people in Bamberg in the period 1623-1633. The last mass burning in Germany was carried out by the Archbishop of Salzburg in 1678, when 97 people went to the stake at once.
Alas, Russia did not remain aloof from the witch hunt. So, when a plague epidemic began in Pskov in 1411, 12 women were burned at once on charges of causing the disease. However, in comparison with Western Europe, we can say that in Russia witches were treated tolerantly. And usually they were severely punished only if they plotted against the sovereign. In general, they rarely burned, they flogged more and more.
In Europe, they not only burned, but also tried to execute with particular sophistication. Judges sometimes insisted that her young children must be present during the execution of a witch. And sometimes her relatives were sent to the fire along with the witch. In 1688, an entire family, including children and servants, was burned for witchcraft.
In 1746, not only the accused was burned, but also her sister, mother and grandmother. And finally, the execution at the stake itself seemed to be specially done to further disgrace the woman. Her clothes were burned first, and she remained naked for some time in full view of the large crowd that had gathered to watch her death. In Russia, they usually burned them in log houses, perhaps to avoid this very shame.
Not only the Inquisition
It is generally accepted that the witch hunts were carried out by the Inquisition. It's hard to deny, but it should be noted that she's not the only one. For example, in the bishoprics of Würzburg and Bamberg, it was not the Inquisition that was on the rampage, but the episcopal courts. In the town of Lindheim in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, ordinary residents tried witches. The tribunal was headed by soldier Geiss, a veteran of the Thirty Years' War. The jury included three peasants and a weaver. Residents of Lindheim nicknamed these people from the people “bloodsucking jurors” because they sent people to the stake at the slightest provocation.
But perhaps the most evil were the Protestant leaders of the Reformation, Calvin and Luther, whom we previously presented as bright heroes who challenged the dark Catholics. Calvin introduced a new method of burning heretics and witches. To make the execution longer and more painful, the condemned were burned on raw wood. Martin Luther hated witches with all his heart and volunteered to execute them himself.
In 1522, he wrote: “Wizards and witches are the evil spawn of the devil, they steal milk, bring bad weather, send damage to people, take away strength in the legs, torture children in the cradle, force people to love and intercourse, and there is no number of machinations of the devil " And under the influence of his sermons, Protestants in Germany sent women to the stake at the slightest suspicion.
It must be said that the Inquisition, although it conducted the bulk of witch trials, strictly followed procedural rules in its work* For example, it was required that the witch confess. True, for this the inquisitors came up with a bunch of different torture devices. For example, a “witch chair” equipped with sharp wooden spikes, on which the suspect was forced to sit for days.
Some witches had large leather boots put on their feet and boiling water poured into them. Feet in such shoes were literally welded. And in 1652, Brigitte von Ebikon was tortured with boiled eggs, which were taken from boiling water and placed under her armpits.
In addition to confession, another proof of the connection between women and the devil could be a water test. It is curious that Christians adopted it from the pagans. Even the laws of Hammurabi at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC recommended that someone accused of witchcraft go to the River Deity and immerse himself in the River; if River captures him, his accuser can take his house. If the River cleanses this person, then he can take the house from the accuser.
Even more significant proof of the witch’s guilt than her confession was the presence of a “mark of the devil” on her body. There were two varieties of them - the “witch’s mark” and the “devil’s mark”. The “Witch Mark” was supposed to resemble the third nipple on a woman’s body, it was believed that through it she fed demons with her own blood.
And the “mark of the devil” was an unusual growth on human skin that was insensitive to pain. Nowadays a theory has emerged that the “witch’s mark” and the “devil’s mark” are characteristic of only one disease. This is leprosy, or leprosy.
As leprosy develops, the skin begins to thicken and form ulcers and nodules that can actually resemble a nipple and are insensitive to pain. And if we take into account that the apogee of the spread of leprosy in Europe occurred in the Middle Ages, it turns out that the inquisitors, under the guise of a witch hunt, fought the leprosy epidemic.
Bonfires against feminism
There is another interesting theory. As if the Inquisition - an instrument of male monastic orders - was trying to put women in their place through a witch hunt. Crusades and civil strife thoroughly decimated the ranks of men in Europe, and therefore, especially in rural communities, the female majority dictated its will to the male minority.
And when men tried to rein in women by force, they threatened to send all sorts of misfortunes upon them. The dominance of women posed a danger to the foundations of the church, since it was believed that the daughters of Eve, the culprits of the Fall, could bring great harm if given them will and power.
It is no coincidence that accusations of witchcraft were often used to deal with women who had achieved great influence and high position. In this regard, we can recall the execution of Henry VIII's wife, Anne Boleyn. One of the charges brought against her in 1536 was witchcraft. And proof of the connection with evil spirits was the sixth finger on one hand of Anna.
And the most famous execution of a witch in centuries remained the burning of Joan of Arc on May 30, 1431 in the city of Rouen. The Inquisition initiated a trial accusing the Maid of Orleans of witchcraft, disobedience to the church and wearing men's clothing. During her execution, there was a pillar with a board in the middle of the scaffold , where it was written: “Jeanne, who calls herself the Virgin, is an apostate, a witch, a damned blasphemer, a bloodsucker, a servant of Satan, a schismatic and a heretic.”
The Guinness Book of Records says that the last time the maid Anna Geldi was executed by court for witchcraft was in the Swiss city of Glarus in June 1782. The investigation against her lasted 17 weeks and 4 days. And she spent most of this time chained and shackled. True, Geldi was spared from being burned alive. Her head was cut off.
And the last witch in human history was burned in the Mexican city of Camargo in 1860. Experts estimate that at least 200 thousand women were executed during the witch hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Oleg LOGINOV
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