1.1 The lexical system of the language
Like other levels of the language (phonetic, derivational, grammatical), vocabulary is a system, i.e., a set of elements (including phraseological units) that are in regular relations and together form a certain integrity. This is the lexico-semantic system of the language. Its elements are lexical units that are connected by relations of identity, similarity, opposite, inclusion, etc.
An example of the simplest lexical unit is a word taken in one of its meanings, or a “word-concept”, according to L. V. Shcherba. Shcherba L. V. Language system and speech activity. L., 1974. S. 291. This unit does not exist in isolation, but in a system, entering into various semantic relationships with other words, for example, similarities (synonyms) young - young, opposites (antonyms): young - old, inclusions: young - having a certain age (cf. . elderly, middle-aged, old, decrepit, etc.). In addition, the considered unit young is associated in the language with stable associations with other similar units that have the same sound (and graphic) shell. They form the structure of a polysemantic word: young "young, not mature" (young man), young "recently appeared, began to grow, exist" (young tree), young "recently cooked" (young cheese, young kvass), young " peculiar, inherent in youth "(young enthusiasm), young (in the sense of a noun, usually used in the forms plural) "just or recently married" (to congratulate the young).
Each unit of the lexical system is included in certain semantic fields on the basis of content similarity and certain associations with other units. Vocabulary as a system is a set of such fields, the units of which are not only interconnected, but also interact with the “words-concepts” of other fields. So, to designate a very young, immature and therefore inexperienced person, a synonymous unit of another semantic field is used - green (cf. green youth), in which it acts in the meaning of "unripe, unripe" (the apples on this apple tree are still green, unripe). In turn, this designation is the result of an associative causal relationship with the original field - color designations (green color, green paint): green is still unripe. So the semantic microfields of designations of a person's age, ripeness of fruits, fruits, cereals and color names turn out to be, like many others, interconnected.
One of the most important manifestations of the systematic nature of vocabulary is the fundamental ability to consistently describe the vocabulary of a language by distributing its units over semantic fields (classes of words with a common meaning). Such a classification of vocabulary is presented in ideographic dictionaries. The entire vocabulary is divided into large classes of words, then into subclasses and, finally, into lexical-semantic groups, such as, say, designations of kinship, displacement, transmission, creation, destruction, color designations, etc. Vocabulary units distributed among such groups, can be quite definitely opposed to each other and described using the appropriate definitions. Such a systematization is based on the sequential inclusion of lower-level units in classes of units in a hierarchically more high level. Shmelev D.N. Russian language in its functional varieties. - p. 20
Another manifestation of the systematic nature of vocabulary is the relations of synonymy, antonymy, conversion, word-formation derivation, and others that are widely represented in it. Turning to explanatory dictionaries, it is easy to see further that minimal lexical units (“word-concepts”) with the same sound (and graphic) shells are grouped into polysemantic words - a kind of microsystems, in the formation of which certain patterns lie.
A quite definite, albeit diverse, systematization of the vocabulary of the language is represented by the opposition of classes of words of the type: native - borrowed, active - passive (obsolete and new), literary - dialect, etc.
The consistency of vocabulary is found not only in its classification, but also in certain patterns of use of language units in speech (text). As will be shown later, words with similar or opposite meanings (units of the same lexico-semantic group, synonyms, antonyms, etc.) have similar lexical compatibility, which is an external expression of their internal properties. Moreover, it turns out to be fundamentally possible to streamline and systematize all non-free lexical compatibility, reducing it to a limited number (several dozen) of lexical functions (“deep meanings”). Thanks to this, it is possible to discover the functional uniformity of a large number of combinations, outwardly seemingly very different. The semantic difference between adjectives deep (gratitude), crackling (frost), burning (brunette), notorious (scoundrel), dead (silence), unshakable, indisputable (authority), like very many other similar ones, turns out to be not so significant and is completely due to specific noun meanings. All adjectives have the same "deep meaning" - "very". This is the implementation of one of the lexical functions in the model "Meaning<=>Text". Thus, a huge array of lexical compatibility is reduced to a limited number of large series, revealing certain patterns in the use of words in speech.
So, entering the lexico-semantic system, each of its elements occupies a quite definite place in it, being opposed to other similar ones and combined in the text with a known circle of words. This place in the system is determined for each unit by the semantic properties of the latter.
The lexico-semantic system is in many respects similar to other language systems. At the same time, like any other system, it has its own specifics, which is explained, first of all, by the nature and composition of its units. The vocabulary of a language is the most complex system: it includes such a large number of objects connected by a variety of relationships that cannot be compared with the number of units of the phonetic (phonological) or grammatical systems. It is enough, for example, to compare the number of phonemes in the Russian language (42) and the number of lexical units, which in the seventeen-volume Dictionary of Modern Russian literary language» exceeds 120,000 words. In addition, the lexico-semantic system, unlike others, is closely related to external, extralinguistic factors and directly reflects the changes that occur in reality. The vocabulary of the language is in a state of continuous change: it is constantly replenished with words and meanings of words necessary to denote new realities and concepts, and, conversely, is freed from those lexical units that are no longer necessary. Because of this, vocabulary is an open system, opposed to such systems as phonetic (phonological) and grammatical. Finally, one more important feature lexical system: it is less "rigid" than others, which is explained by the diffuse nature of the meanings of many words. Lexical units reveal closer, deeper and more diverse connections with the context than units of other systems, and therefore are more "mobile" and variable in their content. Ikonnikov S.N. Stylistics in the course of the Russian language: A guide for students. - M.: Enlightenment, 1979
Of course, it would be wrong to think that all microsystems of vocabulary are structured to the same extent: some of them are more systemic (and they are the majority), others are less ordered and more difficult to analyze. Finally, there are also asystemic phenomena in the vocabulary, just as in most rules there are exceptions, which, however, do not detract from the significance of the rules themselves.
Grammar system Italian 15th century
1.1 Stages in the development of the Italian language The history of the Italian language is quite complex. Currently, Italian is the official language of Italy, the Vatican, San Marino and one of the official languages of Switzerland...
Dialectical foundations of the Chechen and English languages
Achieving adequacy in the translation of terminological vocabulary
The question of the specifics of terms and the problems of their translation has always been of particular importance. The difficulty in defining the concept of a term lies in the fact that it is very difficult to give a clear definition of it ...
Old Russian words with the root "bel"
The composition of the lexical means of a language is a complex whole, a system, the individual parts of which are closely interconnected and interdependent. In modern linguistics, a system is understood as “a set of linguistic elements of any natural language ...
Borrowing in the system of the Russian literary language
Borrowing is an element of a foreign language (word, morpheme, syntactic construction, etc.) transferred from one language to another as a result of language contacts, as well as the process of transition of elements of one language to another ...
Lexical features of the Spanish-language press
The study of language styles is carried out by such a discipline as functional stylistics. It studies the varieties of the literary language, the principles and conditions of their formation, the internal organization of linguistic units...
General and specific in the system-structural organization of the thematic group "movement" of the Russian and English languages
Since the subject of this study is the thematic group "movement", it is fundamentally important for us to define the terminology and outline the range of units included in this semantic association...
The main differences in the vocabulary of the American and British variants in English
Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language, some of its style and sphere. A word is a historically established basic lexical unit of a language, which is a sound or a complex of sounds ...
Modern Russian
The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level...
Let's start with the Russian intonation system. It’s worth starting with the fact that there are several intonation classifications of the Russian language. Some of them follow the substantive path of classification, others follow the formal one, complementing each other...
Comparative analysis intonation systems of Russian and English languages
Having considered the intonational system of the Russian language, let's move on to the prosodic characteristics of the English language. To begin with, let's talk about the ratio of prosodic units and units of semantic articulation of speech. In English, as in Russian ...
The formation of the Russian language as a language of consonant type
The sound system of the Old Russian language, as it is attested by its first written monuments, was inherited as a whole from the Proto-Slavic era; the basic elements of this system are common to all Slavic languages. Two features...
Theory of translation from English
Translator...
French loanwords in Spanish
General remarks: The comparative analysis of the phonetic and graphic systems of the two languages is based on the typological principle. The concept of a system presupposes a certain set of phonemes and the relationship between them...
The language of a multicultural city
Godonym (Greek path, road, street, channel + onym) - type of urbanonym - the name of a linear object in the city, including avenue, street, line, alley, passage, boulevard, embankment. Godonymy - a set of godonyms ...
The vocabulary of any language is a system of interdependent and interconnected lexical units of the same level. There is no language in which any word would exist separately from others - they are all part of a single lexical system.
The concept of a lexical system
All words form groups of words that denote an identical phenomenon. For example, there are groups of words that we use to describe furniture, people's appearance, weather, and so on.
From this we can conclude that the basis of such groups is the thematic factor. There are groups of words that are combined according to grammatical and lexico-semantic features. In the lexical system of the Russian language, groups of words are distinguished that are related according to the following features:
Generalization or opposite meaning;
Similarity or opposite of stylistic properties;
General type of word formation;
Functions in speech;
Belonging to an active or passive vocabulary.
Lexical micro and macro systems
System relations of words in joint groups words are called paradigmatic. It is paradigmatic connections that are the basis of the lexical system of the Russian language. As a rule, within each lexical group of words there are lexical micro and macro systems.
A striking example of a microsystem in the lexical system of the Russian language is antonyms - words that have the opposite meaning in vocabulary. Synonymic rows form a macro system of vocabulary.
The largest semantic associations in the Russian language are parts of speech, extensive lexico-grammatical classes.
The main characteristics of the lexical system of the Russian language
The main factor in the lexical system of the Russian language is the ability of words to combine with other words, based on subject-semantic relationships. At the same time, lexical features and grammatical properties of a certain word are taken into account.
So the word "glass", we can use in relation to the word glass. We cannot use the word glass in combination with the word book, cutlet, cat, since the phrase "glass cutlet" excludes the semantic and grammatical content of both words.
Such phrases are acceptable in an artistic context in a figurative sense, when it is necessary to emphasize the properties of a noun, for example: a glassy look, a glassy heart.
Incompleteness of statements in the lexical system
The lexical system of the Russian language allows for the incompleteness of statements in a neutral, expressive and inter-style stylistic sense. This phenomenon contributes to the formation of words of a functional colloquial style in the lexical system.
Most often, incomplete statements are allowed in a colloquial style. Such truncated syntactic constructions are quite common in dialogues.
Words in terms of meaning. synonymos eponymous these words are different in sound but identical or close in meaning: the wife of the spouse is cheerful joyful to look to look easy simple. Words used to eliminate the harshness or rudeness of a phrase are called euphemisms gr.
Share work on social networks
If this work does not suit you, there is a list of similar works at the bottom of the page. You can also use the search button
The lexical system of the language
The vocabulary of any language is a system of interrelated units lexemes (words). Within this system, groups of words are distinguished, united according to various criteria, for example, according to the thematic attribute, -thematic groups(TG). TG "terms of kinship":mother, father, son, daughter, brother, sister, aunt, uncle etc.
Words can be combined into groups based on different relationships.
- Meaningful relationships:
- Hyper-hyponymic relationships.
- Synonymous.
- Antonymic.
- Formal relationship:
- Homonymous.
- Paronymic.
I . MEANING RELATIONSHIPS
combine words in terms of meaning.
1. Hyper-hyponymic relations
it is a genus-species semantic relationship. Hypernym (Greek hyper over, over) a word with a generic meaning. Hyponym (Greek hypo - under) a word with a specific meaning. So, plants (hypernym) are divided intotrees, shrubs, herbs(hyponyms). Trees (hyperonym), in turn, - onbirch, oak, linden(hyponyms), etc.
2. Synonymous relations -
these are relations of full or partial semantic coincidence.
Synonyms (gr. synonymos eponymous) these are words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning: wife spouse, cheerful joyful, look look, easy simple.
Two or more lexical synonyms, correlated with each other when denoting the same phenomena, objects, signs, actions, formsynonymous series: tall, tall, long, lanky. In the synonymic row stands out dominant (lat. dominans dominant)the head of a synonymic series, as a rule, is the semantically simplest and stylistically neutral word. Other members of the synonymic series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values. So, in a synonymic rowbrave, fearless, daring, dashing, courageous, fearless, fearlessthe adjective brave most capaciously conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms, fearless and free from expressive and stylistic shades.
Synonym types
1. Full (absolute) synonymsdo not differ from each other in shades of meaning and stylistic coloring, for example:hurry hurry up. Basically, these are parallel scientific terms:linguistics linguistics, spelling spelling.
2. Most synonyms differ in some way.
1) semantic synonyms differ in shades of meaning: laugh laugh; to walk, to march, to mince.
- style synonyms: wife (neutral) spouse (book), face (neutral) muzzle (simple) face (book).
- Synonyms that differdegree of modernity: finger (obsolete, archaism) finger, actor (obsolete) actor, know (obsolete) know.
- Synonyms that differsphere of use: qibula (dial.) onion, cook (marine) cook.
- Synonyms that differ compatibility : brown (only eyes) brown, etc.
In some cases, synonyms can be interchanged in speech in order to give the statement a polite form; yes, it's better to say thin (or even slender) than skinny; full than thick ; older than old . Words used to eliminate the harshness or rudeness of a phrase are called euphemisms (gr. eu good, phemi say).
Synonyms help to clarify, supplement our concepts of objects and phenomena, to characterize them vividly and comprehensively, and to avoid repetitions.
The stringing of synonyms often generates gradation (lat gradatio gradual increase), when each next synonym strengthens (or weakens) the meaning of the previous one: smile, laugh, laugh.
- Antonymic relations
relationship of semantic opposites.
Antonyms (gr. anti against, onyma name) words of the same part of speech with opposite meanings:true lie, speak be silent.
By structure antonyms are divided into:
1) single root : honest dishonest, giftedmediocre, comes b leaves b, moral immoral;
- heteroroot : cheerful tired, wealth poverty.
Opposite meanings can also develop within the same word. This is intra-word antonymy (antonymy of the meanings of polysemantic words) enantiosemy . For example, the verb depart can mean come back to normal, feel better, but it can also mean die, say goodbye to life. borrow 1. Borrow, in debt. 2. To lend. Enantiosemy becomes the reason for the ambiguity of such statements:I looked at this article in the Ogonyok magazine. Victor listened to Yakhin's romance.
Antonyms are also divided into:
- general language and
- occasional.
Along with general language (common) antonyms, regularly used, in one context or another there may be words that do not make up an antonymous pair in common use (do not express opposite meanings). In this case aboutcontextual or occasional(lat. casus case), speech, author's antonyms, i.e. words contrasted in a specific context:
…They got together. Wave and stone
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different(A. Pushkin).
The correct use of antonyms in speech helps to reveal the contradictory essence of objects, phenomena, qualities.
Antonyms are the most important means of creating antitheses (gr. antithesis opposition) stylistic figure of contrast, sharp opposition of concepts, images, states. This technique has long been known to folk poetry, it is presented in proverbs and sayings:
Rich and feasting on weekdays,
And the poor grieves on a holiday (Proverb).
M.Yu. Lermontov was a great master of pushing antonyms together:
In the eyes, as in the sky, light,
Her soul is as dark as the sea.
Writers widely use antonyms in the titles of their works:"War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy, " Thick and thin" A.P. Chekhov, "The Living and the Dead" by K. Simonov.
The phenomenon of antonymy is used in oxymoron (gr. oxymoron witty-stupid). This technique consists in combining words expressing logically incompatible concepts in order to depict a new, unusual phenomenon. Some oxymorons are built on antonyms (beginning of the end, old New Year ), others in words with opposite meanings, combined as defined and defining: “ Living corpse "L.N. Tolstoy," An optimistic tragedy» V. Vishnevsky, toponym Dry river.
II . FORMAL RELATIONSHIPS
combine words in terms of form (identical or similar).
- Homonymous relationships -
matching word forms.
Homonyms (gr. homos the same, onyma name) these are words that have the same form, but different meanings, for example: salt1 a substance for seasoning and salt2 a note of a certain sound.
In modern Russian, there are:
1) Lexical homonymswords of the same part of speech that have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings:key1 and key2, bow1 and bow2, English light 1 light and light 2 light, tat. tosh1 dream and tosh bone.
2) Homophones (phonetic homonyms)are pronounced the same but spelled differently:meadow onion, code cat, pond twig; carry lead; cistern cistern, English night night and knight knight. The coincidence in the pronunciation of different words occurs due to the action of various phonetic laws: the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word, the assimilation of voiced consonants by deafness, the reduction of vowels.
3) Homographs (graphic homonyms)spelled the same but pronounced differently:atlas atlas, castle castle, hit hit.
4) Homoforms (grammatical homonyms)words of different parts of speech, coinciding in one form:three (n.) three (v.), flow (n.) flow (v.), know (n.) know (v.), glass (n.) glass (v.), tat. tosh (n.) sleep and tosh (v.) get down.
2. Paronymic relations
Paronyms (gr. para near, about, onyma name) these are words that are similar in sound(and spelling), but different in meaning, for example: patronymic fatherland, subscriber subscription.
There are two understandings, two points of view on paronyms and, accordingly, two groups are distinguished.
1. Paronyms these are words only single root: patronymic fatherland, seconded travel, subscriber subscription and etc.
2. Paronyms words and one-root, and heteroroot: escalator excavator.
The similarity of paronyms (especially single-root ones) can lead to errors in their use. You need to know exactly what they mean.
Ignorant a rude, ill-mannered person; ignoramus a poorly educated person.
Subscription a document granting the right to service, use something, as well as the right to it itself (subscription to the theater, subscription to a cycle of lectures, interlibrary loan); subscriber the one who uses the subscription;
Indian Indian, diplomat diplomat and etc.
Polysemy (polysemy)
In any language there are two groups of words single-valued and multi-valued. Words that have the same lexical meaning,unambiguous, monosemantic, For example, words with a narrow meaning (binoculars, trolleybus)terminological names: sharp (music), gastritis (med.). M multi-valued, polysemanticwords have multiple meanings, the ability of words to have multiple meanings is calledambiguity or polysemy.
For example, the ambiguous word old : 1) An old grandfather was sitting on a mound(having reached maturity); 2)an old friend is better than two new ones(old); 3) We visited the old apartment(former, former before something else).
Among the meanings of a polysemantic word, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.
1) Direct (main, main) meaning of the worddirectly correlated with the phenomena of reality. For example, skate little horse.
2) Portable (indirect) valuesarise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc. Figurative word meanings skate : device for ice skating, hobby, carved wooden decoration on the roof of the hut.
Types of hyphenation of word names
1. Metaphor (gr. metaphora transfer) transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features.
Items may be similar.
- in shape: draw a circle > lifebuoy, bagel drying, bagel > bagel steering wheel;
- by color: golden ring > golden hair, golden autumn;
- by function: janitor (person) > wipers (wipers);
- by the similarity of the arrangement of objects and their parts: the tail of an animal > the tail of a comet, the sole of a shoe > the sole of a mountain;
- transfer of qualities, properties, actions of people and animals to inanimate objects - personification (wolf howl > wind howl) and vice versa (empty bucket > empty head, iron parts > iron, steel nerves, water boiled > crowd boiled), etc.
2. Metonymy (gr. metonymia renaming) transfer of the name from one subject to another based on their contiguity. This
1) transfer of the name of the material to the product from it: Our athletes brought from the Olympics gold and silver ;
2) transferring the name of a place (premises) to groups of people who are there: Audience listened carefully to the lecturer;
3) transferring the name of the vessel to its contents: Eat more spoon , porcelain dish > delicious dish ;
A kind of metonymy synecdoche. This is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa:
Aksakal (Turkic) literally "white beard".
“And it was heard before dawn how rejoiced French" (M. Lermontov)
"Hey beard ! And how to get from here to Plyushkin? (N.Gogol)
Historical changes in the vocabulary of the language
Language as a system is in constant motion, development, and the most mobile level of language is vocabulary: it primarily responds to all changes in society. Some objects, phenomena have existed for a long time, and the words that call them are actively used by native speakers, others die off and with them their names, others appear, new words are created for their names or old ones are rethought.
The following types of changes are distinguished.
1. The appearance of neologisms.
Neologisms (gr. neos new, logos concept) new words and turns of speech created to designate a new subject or express a new concept. Groups of neologisms:
1) Lexical neologisms appear as a result:
a) formations according to productive models from the roots and affixes available in the language (complex abbreviated words like VAT, PE etc., suffix-prefix formations of the predicted type landing (according to the model landing, moon landing)) or
b) borrowings from other languages (economic vocabulary:leasing, dealer, mortgage, tender, know-how).
2) (Lexico-)semantic neologismsnew meanings of known words, for example: bush association of enterprises, institutions; shuttle dealer in imported goods.
- Obsolescence and loss of lexical units and
separate meanings of words
obsolete wordswords that have fallen out of active use and are modern language, as a rule, are not found, but are preserved in the passive dictionary and, for the most part, are understandable to native speakers, known from fiction.
Obsolete words are divided into two groups.
1) Historicisms names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts: king, hussar, governor, chain mail. Their appearance is caused by extralinguistic reasons: social transformations in society, the development of production, the renewal of household items, weapons, etc.
2) Archaisms (gr. archaios ancient) the names of currently existing objects and phenomena, for some reason replaced by other words: forehead , verb speak, etc. The main difference between archaisms and historicisms is the presence of synonyms in the modern language.
- Changing the meanings of words
1) Narrowing the meaning of a word. Yes, the word is beer. originally meant "any drink", powder “dust, a substance consisting of small particles”, compare single root powder.
2) Expansion of the meaning of the word. Yes, finger in Old Russian, only the thumb was called, the rest were called fingers (and now they are all called fingers).
Lexicography
Lexicography section of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
Basic types of dictionaries
There are two types of dictionaries:
1) encyclopedic, they explain the realities (objects, phenomena), provide information about various events: Children's Encyclopedia, Literary Encyclopedia;
2) philological ( linguistic), words are explained, their meanings are interpreted, etc.
Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types:
a) multilingual, i.e. transferable which we use when studying foreign language in working with a foreign language text: Russian-Tatar, English-Russian;
b) monolingual : explanatory, phraseological, historical and etymological, dictionaries of foreign words, grammatical, word-formation, dialect, frequency, reverse, spelling and orthoepic dictionaries, etc.
Other related works that may interest you.vshm> |
|||
| 7875. | Phonetic system of the Russian language | 101.66KB | |
| When soft consonants are formed, an additional movement of the organs of speech accompanying it is added to the main sound-producing movement: the middle part of the back of the tongue rises up to the hard palate, as with a sound | |||
| 14792. | Lexical characteristics of political discourse | 14.29KB | |
| Kupina defines an ideologeme as a verbal unit that is directly related to political denotation and has received a stable ideological increment fixed by normative explanatory dictionaries Kupina 2003: 90. Irreconcilable opponents only agree that the highest value is freedom, but everyone understands in their own way what freedom is and... | |||
| 7876. | The phoneme and phonological system of the Russian literary language in the Moscow and Leningrad (St. Petersburg) phonological | 19.59KB | |
| Baudouin de Courtenay considered the phoneme to be a psychic variant of the sounds of a language: “A phoneme is a single representation belonging to the world of phonetics, which arises in the soul through the psychological fusion of impressions received from the pronunciation of the same sound, is the psychic equivalent of the sounds of a language” | |||
| 4138. | Alternative voting system. Cumulative voting system. Ball system | 4.28KB | |
| Alternative voting system. Cumulative voting system. The system of balls In a way, the ineffectiveness of the system of absolute superiority is already in the first round of elections, alternatively preferential voting, or absolutely voting for any selection of votes for one candidate, but specifying the order of their advantages for others. Such a system was introduced in Australia during the election of the House of Representatives in the lower house of the Australian Parliament. | |||
| 9740. | Party political system of Japan and suffrage and system | 47.98KB | |
| Basic human rights are guaranteed by the Japanese Constitution. They are defined as eternal and unshakable. These rights include the right to equality, freedom, social rights, the right to protection of fundamental human rights. The constitution allows for the restriction of human rights if they violate the public common welfare or the rights of others. | |||
| 2668. | Energy system (energy system). Electrical power (electrical) system | 44.5KB | |
| Natural natural sources from which energy is drawn to prepare it in the right forms for various technological processes are called energy resources. There are the following types of basic energy resources: a chemical energy of the fuel; b atomic energy; to water power ie hydraulic; r radiation energy of the sun; d wind power. e energy of ebbs and flows; Well geothermal energy. Primary energy source or energy resource coal gas oil uranium concentrate hydropower solar... | |||
| 6929. | History of the Delphi Language | 13.01KB | |
| Delphi is the Greek city where the Delphic oracle lived. Delphi is a combination of several important technologies: High-performance compiler to machine code Object-oriented component model Visual and therefore high-speed building of applications from software prototypes Scalable tools for building databases Compiler to machine code Built-in compiler in Delphi provides high performance necessary for building applications in architecture ... | |||
| 6028. | English grammar | 80.08KB | |
| Often they are a combination of a verb followed by a preposition that often significantly changes the original meaning of the word creating a new concept. phrasal verbs for example: to go go to go in go in to go out go out to go wy go down to go down, etc. They are used with the infinitive of the semantic verb, the dictionary variant following them, and show the possibility of the probability of the need for the desirability of the action expressed by the infinitive. They are all capitalized capital letter and if... | |||
| 113. | Phraseology of the Russian language | 7.62KB | |
| Phraseologisms these are stable phrases used to build speech utterances reproduced in ready-made units of a language that have a constant and context-independent meaning. In contrast to free phrases, the elements of which are combined in different ways in their composition, phraseological units have an unchanging set of components and a stable meaning of the entire expression. Phraseological turnover has lexical meaning in general. 7 Presence of a component with an obsolete individual value... | |||
| 7082. | C# GUI | 177.14KB | |
| DrwStringst new Font Times new Romn 8 Brushes. Switching the counter is carried out by clocking pulses generated by an interrupt from the Timer element.7 Editing window for the Series of the Chrt1 element For the timer1 element in its properties on the Events page, set the timer1_Tick interrupt, and on the general property page, set the Intervl property to 1000, the interrupt time is 1 second. As a result of working with the properties of the timer1 element, an empty template for timer interrupts will appear in the form1 code: privte void timer1_Tickobject... | |||
All words of the Russian language are included in its lexical system. There are no words that would be outside of it, perceived separately, in isolation. The characterization of a word can be complete only if its various systemic connections are established with other words that are included with it in certain lexico-semantic groups.
The lexical system of the language reveals the multidimensional and diverse life of words. Their systemic connections capture the history of the language and the people themselves. The study of the development and interaction of the meanings of a word and its relationship with other words is carried out in several directions:
1. within one word - analysis of its meaning (meanings), identification of new shades of meanings, their development.
2. within the vocabulary - combining words into groups based on common and opposite features, description different types semantic connections (synonyms, antonyms, etc.)
3. within the general language system - the study of the dependence of the semantic structure of a word on grammatical features, phonetic changes, linguistic and non-linguistic factors.
All words of significant parts of speech have lexical And grammatical values. Words of service parts of speech usually have only grammatical meaning.
Lexical meaning of the word - it is its content, its correlation with the object or phenomenon of reality.
The grammatical meaning of the word – This general meaning words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of gender, number for nouns, tense for verbs, etc.)
Lexical and grammatical meanings of the word are closely related. Changing the lexical meaning leads to a change grammatical meaning(For example, deaf consonant - relative adjective; deaf voice is a qualitative adjective, has degrees of comparison, short form).
In modern Russian there are words that have the same lexical meaning ( bandage, appendicitis, birch). Such words are called unambiguous.
It is possible to identify several types of unambiguous words :
proper names ( Ivanov, Volgograd, Akhtuba)
Recently emerged words that are not widely used ( pizza, briefing, image maker)
Words with a narrow subject meaning, denoting objects of special use ( beads, topaz)
Terminological names (auscultation, bronchoscopy)
Most words have several (two or more) meanings. They're called polysemantic. The word acquires ambiguity in the process historical development language. As a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The development of vocabulary occurs not only due to the creation of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known ones, the death of some meanings and the emergence of new ones. Among the meanings of a polysemantic word, one is perceived as the main, main, direct, and others as derivatives of this main, original meaning.
direct meaning(main, main) is a meaning that correlates with the phenomena of objective reality (for example, the word black has the meaning "the color of soot, coal")
Portable(indirect) meanings arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions (for example, the word black has several figurative meanings: "the opposite of white": black bread; " darkened": black from sunburn";"chicken-obsolete": black hut;"gloomy, gloomy": black thoughts;"criminal, malicious": black betrayal;"not the main, auxiliary": back door;"physically hard, unskilled work": black labor)
The figurative meanings of words serve to create figurative, expressive means of the language: metaphors, metonyms, epithets, personifications, etc.(for more on them, see topic 2)
There are words in Russian that sound the same but have completely different meanings. Such words are called homonyms. They should not be confused with ambiguous words.
How to distinguish polysemous words from homonyms?
Table 8
Synonyms - words that are close in meaning. Synonyms are:
· Lexical – These are words of the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but differing in shades of meaning. .
· Contextual (situational, author's) – words that come close in meaning in the conditions of one particular text ( hundreds miles, hundreds miles, hundreds kilometers noisy feather grass).
· word-building – cognate words with synonymous, close in meaning prefixes or suffixes ( behind disgust - vos hate; filters To a - filters neither e)
· Syntactic – constructions that have a different construction, but coincide in their meaning ( get started - get to work
· Stylistic – differ in stylistic coloring, scope of use ( face - face - physiognomy - muzzle).
The use of speech synonyms helps to clarify a concept, helps to avoid repetition, helps to strengthen the expression of an action or its sign. The stringing of synonyms often gives rise to a gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens or weakens the meaning of the previous one ( he has certain attitudes, beliefs, worldviews)
Antonyms - words with different meanings that have directly opposite meanings. Antonyms, as a rule, refer to one part of speech and form pairs. Words enter into antonymic relations that are correlative on some basis - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial, opposite names of actions, states are less common ( native - alien, spacious - cramped, cry - laugh)
By structure, antonyms are divided into:
· heteroroot (day - night, concrete - abstract)
· single root (come - go, strong - powerless)
In addition, each member of an antonymous pair can have its own synonyms. For example: smart - stupid; reasonable - stupid; wise - brainless;
heady - headless; sensible - dumb.
Contextual Antonyms are words that are opposed in a particular text. Wolves and sheep"- the name of the play; not a mother, but a daughter; sunlight - moonlight; one year - whole life)
Paronyms - these are single-root words that are similar in sound, but do not match in meaning ( signature - painting, typos - prints, inheritance - heritage).
Mixing paronyms leads to gross lexical errors ( business travelers were sitting in the lobby - necessary seconded). Replacing one paronym with another is not possible.
IN artistic speech there may be a mixture of paronyms to achieve a comic effect ( monument to the pioneer instead of the pioneer printer; writing essays - instead of meeting; bodies of bygone days instead of affairs).
From point of view origin distinguish two main layers of words: vocabulary native Russian - vocabulary borrowed.
Borrowings - quite natural process language enrichment. In turn, many words of the Russian language became part of other languages.
Part original Russian vocabulary includes those words that were formed directly in the Russian language. They are divided into three groups: words are common Slavic, East Slavic, actually Russian.
The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity.
Common Slavic words are inherited from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language, which existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the rivers Dnieper, Bug, Vistula, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries AD. the common Slavic language collapsed.
East Slavic (or Old Russian) words arose in the XI-XIV centuries. This includes words common to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, which once constituted a single East Slavic language.
Actually Russian words have appeared since the XIV century (after dividing into Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian).
Borrowed words make up about 10% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. A special group is Slavisms (or Old Slavonicisms)- words, parts of words, stable phrases that came from the Old Slavonic language.
From Greek from the 9th to the 11th centuries the words from the field of religion, scientific terms, household names, names of plants and animals, from the field of art and science, proper names etc.
From Latin- especially from areas of scientific and technical, social, political, terminological.
From Turkic languages- words related to nomadic life Tatar-Mongols, their clothes, utensils, as well as proper names.
From the Scandinavian languages(Swedish, Norwegian) – words related to sea fishing, proper names. From Finnish - fish names.
From Hebrew -own names.
From Dutch -maritime terms.
From German - in connection with the reforms of Peter I, the most diverse vocabulary was borrowed.
From French - in the XVIII - XIX centuries names of clothes, jewelry, words from the field of art.
From English- under Peter I from areas of maritime affairs; in the XIX - XX centuries from social life, technical and sports.
From Italian- mostly musical terminology.
Nowadays, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting completely new concepts that were not known in the era of antiquity: futurology(lat. futurum - future + gr. Logos - teaching).
Many borrowed words have Russian synonyms: personal - personal; liquidation - termination, absurdity - absurdity etc. the use of borrowed words should be approached with caution. They are appropriate in book, especially scientific, speech. And in colloquial speech they can look ridiculous, meaningless.
The vocabulary of the Russian language, depending on the nature of its functioning, is divided into two large groups: commonly used (neutral) and limited scope.
Neutral vocabulary forms the basis of the vocabulary of the Russian language. This includes the names of concepts and phenomena from different areas of society: political, economic, cultural, everyday. This vocabulary is understandable and accessible to every native speaker and can be used in a variety of conditions without restrictions. This vocabulary is the basis of book speech. But oral speech cannot do without it.
Vocabulary of limited scope distributed within a certain area or among people united by profession, social characteristics, interests, etc. Such words are used mainly in oral non-standardized speech, but sometimes in fiction (for stylization of artistic narration).
The vocabulary of limited scope of use includes dialectisms – original folk words, known only in a certain area; jargon – a social variety of speech used by a narrow circle of native speakers united by a common interest, occupation, position in society (there is a distinction between youth jargon - slang, professional, camp); argotisms - the speech of certain closed groups (thieves, vagabonds, etc., a secret, artificial language of the underworld).
jargon And argotisms distinguished by vulgar coloration. In the development of the national language, the emergence and spread is assessed as a negative phenomenon. Therefore, the language policy is to refuse to use them.
socially restricted use terminological And professional vocabulary used by people of the same profession working in the same field of science and technology.
Terms - words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each branch of knowledge operates with its own terms. The following are distinguished by their scope of use layers of terminological vocabulary:
· General scientific terms , which are used in various areas knowledge and belong to the scientific style as a whole. They have the highest frequency of use.
· Special terms , which are assigned to certain scientific disciplines, branches of production and technology. They concentrate the essence of each science.
TO professional vocabulary include words and expressions used in various areas of production, techniques that have not become common.
should be distinguished terms and professionalism.
The lexical system of the Russian language. The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. Not a single word in the language exists separately, isolated from its general nominative system. Words are combined into different groups based on certain features. So, certain thematic classes are distinguished, which include, for example, words that name specific everyday objects, and words that correspond to abstract concepts. Among the first, it is easy to single out the names of clothing, furniture, dishes, etc. The basis for such a combination of words into groups is not linguistic characteristics, but the similarity of the concepts they denote.
In the lexical system of the language, groups of words are distinguished, connected by a common (or opposite) meaning; similar (or opposed) in stylistic properties; united by a common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary, etc. Systemic connections also cover entire classes of words that are unified in their categorical essence (expressing, for example, the meaning of objectivity, attribute, action, etc. ).
System relations in vocabulary. A word is always associated in speech with other words. The ability to combine with other words is called lexical compatibility. Some words enter into connection with other words relatively freely, practically without restrictions. Yes, the word head can be combined with a large number of adjectives-definitions, calling various signs: size - big, small; form - round; hair color - redhead, gray. Therefore, we can talk about free lexical compatibility words.
Along with words that have free lexical compatibility, there are words in the Russian language, the use of which is not free; two groups of lexically related words and word meanings are distinguished: phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned.
A phraseologically related meaning of a word (more precisely, a phraseologically related word) is such a meaning (word), the lexical connections of which are limited to relatively stable phrases in which the word of non-free use functions. For example, brown combined with the word eyes.
A syntactically defined meaning is a special kind of figurative meaning a word that occurs in a certain context when the word performs a function that is unusual for it. Often syntactically determined meaning is acquired by words naming birds, animals: crow, bear; names of objects of the plant world: oak, thorn; various names denoting specific objects: hat, mattress. In a figurative sense, these words always have expressiveness. As a rule, in this case they perform the function of a predicate, less often an addition, a subject: “Well, this admiral drank,” the embarrassed midshipman said in the wardroom.
Borrowings. Their types.
Borrowing - This
1) the transition of elements of one language into the system of another language as a result of more or less prolonged contacts between these languages;
2) a word or phrase that entered the language as a result of such a transition. Phonemes can be borrowed (for example, the phoneme (f) was borrowed from the Greek language), morphemes (such, for example, morphemes -ism, anti-, etc.); according to foreign language samples, syntactic constructions can be created (for example, adverbial headings of the type Summing up - the result of the influence of English syntax).
But the most frequent and typical type of language borrowing is word borrowing, or lexical borrowing.
So, depending on which language certain words came from, two types of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) borrowings from related languages (in Russian - from Slavic) and 2) borrowings from other languages.
Consider this on the example of the Russian language.
The first type includes, firstly, borrowings from the Old Slavonic language, as well as from other Slavic languages (for example, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Bulgarian, Czech, etc.).
The second type includes borrowings from Greek, Latin, as well as Turkic, Iranian, Scandinavian, Western European (Romance, Germanic, etc.), etc.
The reasons for lexical borrowing can be external and internal. The main external reason is close political, trade and economic ties between peoples who speak languages. The most typical form of influence due to such connections is the borrowing of a word together with the borrowing of a thing or concept (cf. words like car, conveyor, radio, cinema, television, laser, transistor, etc.).
Another external reason is the need to designate with the help of a foreign word k.-l. reappeared special kind objects or concepts; for example, to refer to a servant in a hotel in Rus. language strengthened French. by origin, the word porter (the word servant does not clearly indicate the scope of this person).
The need for specialization of names is associated with one of the intralinguistic reasons of borrowing, namely, with the inherent tendency of the language towards ever greater differentiation. language tools within the meaning of. As a result of this trend, the meaning expressed by Rus. in a word, it can “split” into two and one of them receives a foreign language nomination: fear - panic, comfort - comfort, etc. Another intralinguistic reason for borrowings is the tendency to replace descriptive names with one-word ones; so, in Russian the words sconce (instead of a wall lamp), sniper (instead of a well-aimed shooter), safe (instead of a fireproof cabinet), service (instead of consumer services), etc., appeared in the language.
Borrowing can be carried out in two ways - oral and written. For Russian language to con. 18th century was characterized by preim. oral route; in the 19th and especially in the 20th centuries, due to the strengthening of the communicative role of journalism, the mass media, and the language of science, borrowings through written sources predominate. In the modern era, borrowing occurs very intensively - both through written sources and orally.
Loading...