Gerundium
A gerund is a verbal noun with the meaning of an abstract idea of action.
The gerund is formed from the base of the infection using the suffix -nd- for I - II conjugations and the suffix -end- for III - IV conjugations.
Unlike verbal nouns like lectio, Mnis f reading gerundium combines the features of a verb and a noun.
Signs of a noun in a gerund
The gerund changes according to the 2nd declension. It has no nominative form, no gender and plural. The dative form of the gerund is rarely used.
Since the abstract idea of action is expressed by the unchangeable form of the verb infinit+vus, it is considered the logical nominative case of the gerund. Sometimes the gerund is translated indefinite form verb (see examples below), as well as a verbal noun or gerund.
| I ref. | II reference | III reference | IV reference | |
| N | ||||
| G | orna-nd-i | doce-nd-i | tag-end-i | audi-end-i |
| D | (orna-nd-o) | (doce-nd-o) | (tag-end-o)` | (audi-end-o) |
| ACC | orna-nd-um | doce-nd-um | tag-end-um | audi-end-um |
| Abl | orna-nd-M | doce-nd-M | tag-end-M | audi-end-M |
Using the gerund
Genet+vus gerund is used
as a definition with a noun: modus vivendi way of existence;
with the prepositions caus and grati: docendi caus for the sake of learning;
with some nouns and adjectives that require the genitive case: cupid-tas discendi thirst for knowledge, cup-dus bellandi eager to fight.
Accusat+vus gerund is used with the preposition ad (sometimes with the preposition ob) to mean the purpose of the action: ad legendum for reading.
Ablat+vus gerund is used:
in the meaning ablat+vus modi or ablat+vus instrumenti: Gutta cavat lapidem non vi, sed saepe cadendo. - A drop hollows a stone not by force, but by frequent falling;
with prepositions ex, de, in: Ex discendo cap-mus volupt tem. - We enjoy learning.
Verb signs of gerund
The gerund, as a verb, can be referred to by an adverb, which in this case is its definition: saepe cadendo - falling frequently (or “falling often”).
With a gerund, the noun is placed in the case that is used with the verb from which the gerund is formed: libros (Acc.) legere to read books - ad legendum libros (Acc) to read books. Other verbal nouns require after themselves another noun in the form of a genitive: lectio librMrum reading books.
Gerundive (Gerund+vum)
A gerundive is a verbal adjective meaning “one with whom something should be done”: ornandus, a um that (that, that) that should be decorated.
The gerund is formed from the infective stem using the suffix -nd- for I and II conjugations and the suffix -end- for III - IV conjugations, and the endings of adjectives of I - II declension:
| I spr | orna - nd - us, a, um | III spr | ted - end - us, a, um |
| II spr | doce - nd - us, a, um | IV spr | audi - end - us, a, um |
The gerund is declined like adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declensions.
The gerund is used in a sentence:
as a definition: templa relinquenda - temples that must be abandoned.
as a nominal part of the predicate: Liber legendus est. - The book must be read.
With the help of the gerund, impersonal sentences can be formed, i.e. those in which the character is not implied: We must work. Cold. In this case, a combination of the gerundive and the verb esse is used, and the gerundive is in the neuter form, and the linking verb is in the 3rd form. units Part: Laborandum est. - You need to work.
A gerund can be formed from any verb. The literal translation of the gerund often contradicts the speech norms of the Russian language, and in these cases it is necessary to adjust the phrase accordingly, for example: Sen tus consulendus est. - The opinion of the Senate should be sought (not "the Senate should be asked"), etc.
The gerund, like the participle, can be used in a predicative function. In this case, it, formally being a definition of a noun, actually performs the function of a logical predicate, and the noun (pronoun) with it is the role of a logical object to which the action of the predicate verb is directed: ad libros legendos. In this case, the gerund is translated into singular by a verbal noun. including: for reading books (lit. for books that must be read). The combination of a noun with a gerund in a predicative function is called a “gerund construction”.
The meaning of the gerund construction coincides with the meaning of the “accusative gerund with direct object” construction. They are translated into Russian in the same way:
Moreover, the gerund construction is used in Latin much more often than a phrase with a gerund.
Dat+vus auctMris
Dat+vus auctMris (“dative of the actor”) is used in the gerund construction to designate the person who must perform the action indicated by the gerund: Mihi legendum est. - I need to read.
Negative verbs (verb deponenti)
In Latin there are a significant number of verbs that have the form passive voice, but at the same time it is an active value. Such verbs are called deponents (verb deponenti).
The dictionary lists three forms of negative verbs: praesens, perfectum and infinit+vus praesentis. The base of the supine is determined by the form participium perfecti passivi, which is part of the passive perfect:
I ref. arbitror, arbitr tus sum, arbitr ri think, believe
II reference vereor, ver-tus sum, verri to be afraid
IIIsp. utor, usus sum, uti to use
IVsp. metior, metus sum, met+ri to measure.
Just as among non-negative verbs there is a group of verbs of III conjugation in -io, among deferential verbs there is a group of verbs of III conjugation in -ior. They are conjugated as III conjugation verbs ending in -io in the passive voice:
morior, mortuus sum, mori to die.
Praesens indicativi
The most common III conjugation verbs in -ior:
morior, mortuus sum, mori to die;
gradior, gressus sum, gradi to walk, go (usually used with prefixes; in this case, the vowel in the middle of the word changes, for example, gradior I'm going - regredior I'm leaving);
patior, passus sum, pati endure, allow
The forms participium praesentis, gerund, supina, as well as the future participle (participium futkri), and the future infinitive (infinit+vus futkri) are formed as in the active voice.
The conjugation of negative verbs in the indicative and conjunctive does not differ from the conjugation of forms of the passive voice already known to us.
Imperat+vus praesentis of negative verbs is formed from the stem infect using the following endings:
in singul ris: -re (i.e. formally the singular number of the imperative of these verbs looks like infinitivus praesentis activi)
in plur lis: -mini (i.e. formally the plural of the imperative coincides with the form of the 2nd plural praesens indicat+vi pass+vi)
In the III conjugation, a connecting vowel -ﾧ- is inserted between the base and the ending.
I ref. arbitr -re! think! arbitra-m-ni! think!
II reference ver-re! be afraid! vere-m-ni! be afraid!
III reference ut-ﾧ-re! use it! ut-e-m+ni! use it!
IV reference met+-re! measure! meti-m-ni! measure!
The meaning of participium perfecti for positive verbs coincides with the meaning of Russian active past participles: the participle locutus, a, um from the verb loquor, locktus sum, loqui means “said”, while the participle from the non-definite verb dico, dixi, dictum, ﾧre dictus, a, um - “said”. Some positive verbs form participium perfecti, which has both active and passive meanings: expertus, a, um experienced and tested (from the verb experior, expertus sum, exper+ri to experience).
The gerund of deferential verbs, like the gerund of non-deferential verbs, has a passive meaning: loquendus, a, um that (that, those) that must be said, expressed.
Semi-deponenti verbs (verb semideponenti)
Semi-negative are those Latin verbs in which part of the forms are formed according to the type of active voice, and part - according to the type of passive voice. There are two types of semi-negative verbs: in some, the forms formed from the infective stem have active voice endings, and the forms formed from the perfect stem have passive voice endings: audeo, ausus sum, audre dare, dare; in others, on the contrary, the forms from the base of the infective are formed according to the passive voice model, and from the base of the perfect - according to the active model: revertor, reverti, (reversus), reverti return.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
In Latin, as in Russian, among the adjectives there is a group of qualitative adjectives. They name some quality of an object: beautiful, kind, etc. These qualities may manifest themselves in a particular person or object to a greater or lesser extent. Accordingly, from one or another qualitative adjective forms can be formed that express a greater or lesser degree of this quality: kind - kindest, etc.
In Latin, there are three degrees of comparison of adjectives (this also includes the original forms):
positive (gradus posit+vus), which includes adjectives already known to us
comparative (gradus comparat+vus)
excellent (gradus superlat+vus).
Comparative and superlative adjectives can be formed:
using suffixes;
using words indicating the degree of quality;
from bases that do not coincide with the bases of a positive degree.
Comparative degree education
Formation with suffixes
N. sing. the comparative degree of adjectives of all declensions is formed from the base of the adjective, to which is added
in the forms mascul+num and femin+num - the suffix -ior-
in the form neutrum - suffix -ius:
longus, a, um long; G. sing. long-i; long-base. Comparative degree: m - long - ior, f - long - ior, n - long - ius;
brevis, e short; G. sing. brev-is, base brev-. Comparative degree: m - brev - ior, f - brev - ior, n - brev - ius.
The comparative degree changes according to the third consonantal declension:
The comparative degree of adjectives in -d-cus, -f-cus, -vOlus is formed by adding the element -entior to the stem: magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnificentior, ius more magnificent.
Education with auxiliary words
The comparative degree from the positive degree with the help of the adverb magis is more formed by adjectives whose stem ends in a vowel sound (i.e. adjectives ending in -eus, -ius, -uus in N. sing.): necessarius necessary, magis necessarius - more necessary.
Using the comparative degree
The comparative degree can be used:
with a noun (pronoun) that is compared with something. The object of comparison is joined by the conjunction quam than: aer levior est, quam aqua air is lighter than water.
Ablat+vus comparatiMnis
The conjunction quam with the object of comparison can be omitted. In this case, the word that expresses the object of comparison is put in the ablative (in Russian the genitive case is used: air is lighter than water). Such an ablativus is called ablat+vus comparatiMnis (blative comparison): ar levior est aqu.
The combination of a noun (pronoun) with a comparative degree depending on it can be used in isolation, without an object of comparison. In this case, the comparison occurs as if with a certain norm that exists in the mind of the speaker. This use of the comparative degree is called an independent comparative degree. The independent comparative degree is translated into Russian by a positive degree (i.e. an ordinary adjective) in combination with the words quite, somewhat, very, too, excessively, etc.: senex servior - too stern old man.
Education superlatives
The superlative degree of adjectives can be formed in a suffix way:
by adding the element --ssim- to the stem, and to it - the endings of the masculine, feminine and neuter genders of the 1st - 2nd declension: long-us, a, um long > longiss-m-us, a, um the longest
adjective with -d-cus, -f-cus u vOlus form a comparative degree with -entiss-mus: magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnific - entissimus, a ,um the most magnificent.
adjectives starting with -er form the superlative degree by adding to the stem the element -r-m-, and to it - the masculine, feminine and neuter endings: liber, -ﾧra, -ﾧrum free; base liber-; superlative liber-r-m-us, a, um the freest.
The adjective vetus also forms the superlative degree, ﾧris old, ancient -> veterr-mus, a, um oldest, most ancient.
the group of adjectives starting with -lis forms the superlative degree with the suffix -l-m-, to which they add generic endings us, a, um:
fac-lis, e easy -> facil-lim-us, a, um the easiest, etc.
diffic-lis, e heavy, difficult
sim-lis, e similar
dissim-lis, e dissimilar
hum-lis, e low
grac-lis, e graceful.
Adjectives ending in -eus, -ius, -uus form a comparative degree from the positive with the help of the adverb maxime most: necessarius, a, um necessary -> maxime necessarius most necessary.
Adjectives in the superlative degree change according to the 1st - 2nd declensions.
Meaning of superlative adjectives
Superlative adjectives can have two meanings:
the highest degree of quality (actually gradus superlat+vus);
very high degree of quality (this value is called gradus elat+vus).
One or another meaning of the superlative degree is determined by the context. The elative is most often used: flumen latiss-mum the widest river (superlative), very wide river (elative).
The comparative degree can be strengthened with the help of the adverb multo much, significantly; excellent - with the help of the union quam: Sementes quam max-mas facﾧre - to produce as large crops as possible.
Supplemental degrees of comparison
Supplemental forms of various parts of speech are those forms that are formed from different stems (cf. in Russian: the positive degree is good, and the comparative degree is better). In Latin, suppletive degrees of comparison form adjectives:
| Positive degree | comparative | Superlative |
| bonus, a, um (good) | melior, melius | opt-mus, a, um |
| malus, a, um (bad) | peior, peius | pess-mus, a, um |
| magnus, a, um (large) | maior, maius | max-mus, a, um |
| parvus, a, um (small) | minor, minus | min-mus, a, um |
| multi, ae, a (many) | plur-mi, ae, |
Ablat+vus separatiMnis
Ablat+vus separatiMnis is used with verbs or adjectives that mean removal, separation, for example:
movre, pellﾧre - remove, expel (from something)
cedﾧre - to remove oneself from something
arcre, prohibre - to abstain from something
liber re - to free from something.
If ablat+vus separatiMnis is expressed by an animate noun, then it is used with the preposition a (ab). The inanimate noun in ablat+vus separatiMnis is used without a preposition, and sometimes with the prepositions a(ab), de, e(ex).
Homo sum, hum ni nihil a me alienum puto. - I am a man, and I believe that nothing human is alien to me.
Duces copias castris edkcunt. - The commanders are withdrawing the army from the camp.
Ablat+vus loci
Ablat+vus loci (“ablative of place”) answers the question “where” and means the place of action.
Ablat+vus loci is used without a preposition if words with the meaning of place or space have an agreed definition (i.e., standing in the same case and number as the word to which it refers). In particular, this rule applies to combinations involving the words totus, a, um all, whole and locus, i, m place: tot urbﾧ in the whole city; hoc loco in (at) this place.
If there is no definition for such words with a local-spatial meaning, they are used with the preposition in: in urbﾧ in the city.
The following are used without a preposition:
the expression terr mar+que on land and sea;
the name of a path or road with verbs of movement: eMdem itinﾧrﾧ reverti - return the same way.
Designation of the place of action in Latin
When designating the place of action, answering the question “where”, they are put in the form genetivus:
names of cities of the 1st and 2nd declension: Romae in Rome
domus, i, f house: domi house
humus, i f earth: humi on (in) earth, on earth
rus, ruris n village: ruri in the village [These forms have the ending of the locative (local case) lost in the Latin language. Therefore, the form ruri has the ending -i, which is unusual for the third declension genetive.]
When indicating the direction of action, words answering the question “where?” are put in the accusativus form: Romam to Rome, domum home, rus to the village.
When denoting the place of departure (i.e. starting point), words are used in the form ablat+vus: Rom from Rome, domM from home, rurﾧ from the village.
Names of cities of I - II declension, having only a plural form (Athnae, rum f FORMTEXT Fins, Delphi, Mrum m Delphi), as well as names of cities of III declension (Carthago, Carthag-nis f Carthage):
to indicate the place of action and the place of departure, they are put in the ablative: Athenis in Athens (or from Athens), Delphis in Delphi (or from Delphi), Carthaginﾧ in Carthage (or from Carthage);
to indicate the direction of action - in the accusative: Athnas in Athens, etc.
Russian nouns denoting segments of space (and time) are usually expressed in Latin by adjectives, which in this case are placed before the nouns (on this basis, phrases of this type should be distinguished from ordinary combinations of a noun with an adjective - an agreed definition: media via the middle of the road (cf. . via media middle road), etc.
Genet+vus genﾧris
Genet+vus genﾧris (“genitive kind” or “genitive species”) is used:
with neuter singular nouns denoting measure, number or quantity;
with quantitative adjectives and pronouns of the neuter singular. Genetivus generis denotes objects or substance that is subject to measurement or counting: numﾧrus mil-tum number of warriors; nihil novi nothing new; aliquid tempOris for some time (lit. several times).
Genet+vus partit+vus
Genet+vus partit+vus is used to designate a whole, from which only a part is isolated.
Genetivus partitivus is used:
in the presence of a definition expressed by an adjective in the comparative or superlative degree: GallMrum omnium fortiss-mi sunt Belgae (Caes.) - The bravest of all Gauls are the Belgae;
with interrogatives and indefinite pronouns(see lecture): quis nostrum? which one of us? nemo nostrum none of us;
with adjectives with the meaning of quantity, in the plural form (multi many, pauci few, etc.): multi nostrum many of us;
with numerals: unus nostrum one of us.
The combination genet+vus genﾧris with these words is translated into Russian genitive case with the prepositions “from”, “between”, “among”.
References
Miroshenkova V.I., Fedorov N.A. Textbook of the Latin language. 2nd ed. M., 1985.
Nikiforov V.N. Latin legal phraseology. M., 1979.
Kozarzhevsky A.I. Textbook of the Latin language. M., 1948.
Sobolevsky S.I. Latin grammar. M., 1981.
Rosenthal I.S., Sokolov V.S. Textbook of the Latin language. M., 1956.
Gerundium
A gerund is a verbal noun with the meaning of an abstract idea of action.
The gerund is formed from the base of the infection using the suffix -nd- for I - II conjugations and the suffix -end- for III - IV conjugations.
Unlike verbal nouns like lectio, Mnis f reading gerundium combines the characteristics of a verb and a noun.
Signs of a noun in a gerund
The gerund changes according to the 2nd declension. It has no nominative form, no gender and no plural. The dative form of the gerund is rarely used.
Since the abstract idea of action is expressed by the unchangeable form of the verb infinit+vus, it is considered the logical nominative case of the gerund. Sometimes a gerund is translated into an indefinite form of a verb (see examples below), as well as a verbal noun or a gerund.
Using the gerund
Genet+vus gerund is used
· as a definition of a noun: modus vivendi way of existence;
- with prepositions caus And grati : docendi caus for the sake of learning;
- with some nouns and adjectives that require the genitive case: cupid-tas discendi thirst for knowledge, cup-dus bellandi thirsty for war .
Accusat+vus gerund is used with a preposition ad(sometimes with the pretext ob) in the meaning of the purpose of the action: ad legendum for reading .
Ablat+vus gerund is used:
· in the meaning ablat+vus modi or ablat+vus instrumenti: Gutta cavat lapidem non vi, sed saepe cadendo. - A drop hollows a stone not by force, but by frequent falling;
- with prepositions ex, de, in : Ex discendo cap-mus voluptem. - We enjoy learning.
Verb signs of gerund
A gerund, like a verb, can be referred to by an adverb, which in this case is its definition: saepe cadendo - frequent falling(or " often falling").
With a gerund, the noun is placed in the case that is used with the verb from which the gerund is formed: libros (Acc.) legere to read books - ad legendum libros (Acc.) to read books. Other verbal nouns require after themselves another noun in the form of a generative: lectio librMrum reading books .
Gerundive (Gerund+vum)
A gerund is a verbal adjective meaning “one with whom something must be done”: ornandus, a um that (that, that) that should be decorated .
The gerund is formed from the infectious stem using the suffix -nd- for I and II conjugations and suffix -end- for III - IV conjugations, and endings of adjectives of I - II declension:
| orna - nd - us, a, um |
ted - end - us, a, um |
||
| doce - nd - us, a, um |
audi - end - us, a, um |
The gerund is declined like adjectives of the 1st and 2nd declensions.
The gerund is used in a sentence:
· as a definition: templa relinquenda - temples that must be abandoned .
- as a nominal part of the predicate: Liber legend est. - The book must be read.
With the help of the gerund, impersonal sentences can be formed, i.e. those in which the character is not implied: Need to work. Cold. In this case, a combination of a gerund and a verb is used essay, and the gerund is in the neuter form, and the linking verb is in the 3 l form. units h.: Laborandum est. - You need to work .
A gerund can be formed from any verb. The literal translation of the gerund often contradicts the speech norms of the Russian language, and in these cases it is necessary to adjust the phrase accordingly, for example: Sentus consulendus est. - The opinion of the Senate should be sought(not "the Senate must be asked"), etc.
The gerund, like the participle, can be used in a predicative function. In this case, it, formally being a definition of a noun, actually performs the function of a logical predicate, and the noun (pronoun) with it is the role of a logical object to which the action of the predicate verb is directed: ad libros legendos. In this case, the gerund is translated into singular by a verbal noun. number: for reading books(lit. for books that must be read). The combination of a noun with a gerund in a predicative function is called a “gerund construction”.
The meaning of the gerund construction coincides with the meaning of the “accusative gerund with direct object” construction. They are translated into Russian in the same way:
Moreover, the gerund construction is used in Latin much more often than a phrase with a gerund.
Dat+vus auctMris
Dat+vus auctMris (“dative of the actor”) is used in the gerund construction to designate the person who must perform the action indicated by the gerund: Mihi legendum est. - I need to read .
Negative verbs (verb deponenti)
In Latin, there are a significant number of verbs that have the form of a passive voice, but at the same time have an active meaning. Such verbs are called deponents (verb deponenti).
The dictionary lists three forms of negative verbs: praesens, perfectum and infinit+vus praesentis. The base of the supine is determined by the form participium perfecti passivi, which is part of the passive perfect:
I ref. arbitror, arbitrtus sum, arbitrri think, believe
II reference vereor, ver-tus sum, verri to be afraid
IIIsp. utor, usus sum, uti to use
IVsp. metior, metus sum, met+ri to measure.
Just as among non-negative verbs there is a group of verbs of III conjugation in -io, among deferential verbs there is a group of verbs of III conjugation in -ior. They are conjugated as III conjugation verbs ending in -io in the passive voice:
morior, mortuus sum, mori to die .
Praesens indicativi
The most common III conjugation verbs in -ior:
morior, mortuus sum, mori to die;
gradior, gressus sum, gradi walk, go (usually used with prefixes; in this case, the vowel in the middle of the word changes, for example, gr a dior I'm coming - regr e dior I'm leaving);
patior, passus sum, pati endure, allow
The forms participium praesentis, gerund, supina, as well as the future participle (participium futkri), and the future infinitive (infinit+vus futkri) are formed as in the active voice.
The conjugation of negative verbs in the indicative and conjunctive does not differ from the conjugation of forms of the passive voice already known to us.
Imperat+vus praesentis of negative verbs is formed from the stem infect using the following endings:
in singulris: -re(i.e. formally the singular number of the imperative of these verbs looks like infinitivus praesentis activi)
in plurlis: -mini(i.e. formally the plural of the imperative coincides with the form of the 2nd plural praesens indicat+vi pass+vi)
In the III conjugation, a connecting vowel is inserted between the base and the ending -- .
I ref. arbitr-re! think! arbitra-m-ni! think!
II reference ver-re! be afraid! vere-m-ni! be afraid!
III reference ut--re! use it! ut-e-m+ni! use it!
IV reference met+-re! measure! meti-m-ni! measure!
The meaning of participium perfecti for negative verbs coincides with the meaning of Russian active past participles: participle locutus, a, um from the verb loquor, locktus sum, loqui means “who said”, whereas the participle of a non-negative verb dico, dixi, dictum, re dictus, a, um- "said". Some positive verbs form participium perfecti, which has both active and passive meanings: expertus, a, um experienced And tried and tested(from the verb experior, expertus sum, exper+ri to experience).
The gerund of negative verbs, like the gerund of non-positive verbs, has a passive meaning: loquendus, a, um that (that, those) that must be said, expressed .
Semi-deponenti verbs (verb semideponenti)
Semi-negative are those Latin verbs in which part of the forms are formed according to the type of active voice, and part - according to the type of passive voice. There are two types of semi-negative verbs: in some, the forms formed from the infectious stem have active voice endings, and the forms formed from the perfect stem have passive voice endings: audeo, ausus sum, audre to dare, dare, - for others, on the contrary, forms from the base of the infectious are formed according to the model of the passive voice, and from the base of the perfect - according to the model of the active: revertor, reverti, (reversus), reverti come back.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
In Latin, as in Russian, among the adjectives there is a group of qualitative adjectives. They call something quality subject: handsome, kind and so on. These qualities may manifest themselves in a particular person or object to a greater or lesser extent. Accordingly, from one or another qualitative adjective forms can be formed that express a greater or lesser degree of this quality: kind - kindest and so on.
In Latin, there are three degrees of comparison of adjectives (this also includes the original forms):
· positive (gradus posit+vus), which includes adjectives already known to us
- comparative (gradus comparat+vus)
- excellent (gradus superlat+vus).
Comparative and superlative adjectives can be formed:
· using suffixes;
- using words indicating the degree of quality;
- from bases that do not coincide with the bases of a positive degree.
Comparative degree education
Formation with suffixes
N. sing. the comparative degree of adjectives of all declensions is formed from the base of the adjective, to which is added
· in the forms mascul+num and femin+num - suffix -ior-
- in the form neutrum - suffix -ius :
longus, a, um long; G. sing. long-i; the basis long- long - ior,f- long - ior, n- long - ius ;
brevis, e short; G. sing. brev-is, the basis brev-. Comparative degree: m - brev-ior,f- brev-ior, n- brev-ius .
The comparative degree changes according to the third consonantal declension:
Comparative degree of adjectives in -d-cus, -f-cus, -vOlus is formed by adding an element to the base -entior : magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnificentior, ius more magnificent.
Education with auxiliary words
Comparative degree from positive degree using adverb more form adjectives whose stem ends in a vowel sound (i.e. adjectives ending in N. sing. in -eus, -ius, -uus): necessarius necessary, magis necessarius - more necessary.
Using the comparative degree
The comparative degree can be used:
with a noun (pronoun) that is compared with something. The object of comparison is joined by a conjunction quam than : aer levior est, quam aqua air is lighter than water.
Ablat+vus comparatiMnis
The conjunction quam with the object of comparison can be omitted. In this case, the word that expresses the object of comparison is put in the ablative (in Russian the genitive case is used: air is lighter than water). Such an ablativus is called ablat+vus comparatiMnis (blative comparison): ar levior est aqu .
The combination of a noun (pronoun) with a comparative degree depending on it can be used in isolation, without an object of comparison. In this case, the comparison occurs as if with a certain norm that exists in the mind of the speaker. This use of the comparative degree is called an independent comparative degree. The independent comparative degree is translated into Russian by a positive degree (i.e. an ordinary adjective) in combination with the words quite, somewhat, quite, too, excessively etc.: senex servior - too stern old man .
Superlative education
The superlative degree of adjectives can be formed in a suffix way:
by adding an element to the base --ssim-, and to it - the endings of the masculine, feminine and neuter genders of the 1st - 2nd declension: long-us, a, um long > longiss-m-us, a, um the longest
- adjective on -d-cus, -f-cus u vOlus form the comparative degree on -entiss-mus: magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnific - entissimus, a ,um most magnificent .
- adjectives for -er form the superlative by adding the element to the base -r-m-, and to it - endings of masculine, feminine and neuter gender: liber, -ra, -rum free; the basis liber-; superlative liber-r-m-us, a, um the freest.
It also forms a superlative adjective. vetus, ris old, ancient -> veterr-mus, a, um oldest, most ancient.
· group of adjectives -lis forms the superlative degree with the suffix -l-m-, to which the generic endings us, a, um are added:
fac-lis, e easy -> facil-lim-us, a, um the easiest, etc.
diffic-lis, e heavy, difficult
sim-lis, e similar
dissim-lis, e dissimilar
hum-lis, e low
grac-lis, e graceful.
Adjectives on -eus, -ius, -uus form the comparative degree of the positive using an adverb maxime most: necessarius, a, um necessary -> maxime necessarius most necessary.
Adjectives in the superlative degree change according to the 1st - 2nd declensions.
Meaning of superlative adjectives
Superlative adjectives can have two meanings:
· the highest degree of quality (actually gradus superlat+vus);
- very high degree of quality (this value is called gradus elat+vus).
One or another meaning of the superlative degree is determined by the context. The most commonly used elative is: flumen latiss-mum the widest river(superlative ), very wide river(elative).
The comparative degree can be strengthened with the help of an adverb multo much, significantly; excellent - with the help of a union quam: Sementes quam max-mas facre - produce as large crops as possible.
Supplemental degrees of comparison
Supplemental forms of various parts of speech are those forms that are formed from different stems (cf. in Russian: positive degree Fine, and comparative - better). In Latin, suppletive degrees of comparison form adjectives:
Ablat+vus separatiMnis
Ablat+vus separatiMnis is used with verbs or adjectives that mean removal, separation, for example:
movre, pellre - remove, expel (from something)
cedre - to remove oneself from something
arcre, prohibre - to abstain from something
liberre - to free from something.
If ablat+vus separatiMnis is expressed by an animate noun, then it is used with the preposition a(ab). The inanimate noun in ablat+vus separatiMnis is used without a preposition, and sometimes with prepositions a(ab), de, e(ex) .
Homo sum, humni nihil a me alienum puto. - I am a man, and I believe that nothing human is alien to me.
Duces copias castris edkcunt. - The commanders are withdrawing the army from the camp.
Ablat+vus loci
Ablat+vus loci (“ablative of place”) answers the question “where” and means the place of action.
Ablat+vus loci is used without a preposition if words with the meaning of place or space have an agreed definition (i.e., standing in the same case and number as the word to which it refers). In particular, this rule applies to combinations involving the words totus, a, um all, whole And locus, i, m place: tot urb in the whole city; hoc loco in (at) this place.
If such words with a local-spatial meaning do not have a definition, they are used with the preposition in: in urb in the city .
The following are used without a preposition:
· expression terr mar+que on land and sea ;
- name of a path or road with verbs of movement: eMdem itinr reverti - return the same way.
Designation of the place of action in Latin
When designating the place of action, answering the question “where”, they are put in the form genetivus:
names of cities of the 1st and 2nd declension: Romae in Rome
- words
domus, i, f house: domi at home
humus, i f earth: humi on (in) the ground, on the ground
rus, ruris n village: ruri in the village [These forms have the ending of the locative (local case) lost in the Latin language. Therefore, the form ruri has the ending -i, which is unusual for the third declension genetive.]
When indicating the direction of action, words answering the question “where?” are put in the accusativus form: Romam to Rome, domum home, rus to the village .
When indicating the place of departure (i.e. starting point), words are used in the form ablat+vus: Rom from Rome, domM from home, rur from the village .
Names of cities of I - II declensions, having only the plural form ( Athnae, rum f FORMTEXT Finns, Delphi, Mrum m Delphi), as well as the names of cities of the III declension ( Carthago, Carthag-nis f Carthage):
To indicate the place of action and the place of departure, the following are used in the ablative form: Athenis in Athens(or from Athens), Delphis in Delphi ( or from Delphi), Carthagin in Carthage ( or from Carthage);
- to indicate the direction of action - in the accusative: Athnas in Athens etc.
Russian nouns denoting segments of space (and time) are usually expressed in Latin by adjectives, which in this case are placed before the nouns (on this basis, phrases of this type should be distinguished from ordinary combinations of a noun with an adjective - an agreed definition: media via middle of the road (cf. via media middle road) and so on.
Genet+vus genris
Genet+vus genris (“genitive genus” or “genitive species”) is used:
· with neuter singular nouns denoting measure, number or quantity;
- with quantitative adjectives and pronouns of the neuter singular. Genetivus generis denotes objects or substance that is subject to measurement or counting: numrus mil-tum number of warriors; nihil novi nothing new; aliquid temporis for a while(lit. some time).
Genet+vus partit+vus
Genet+vus partit+vus is used to designate a whole, from which only a part is isolated.
Genetivus partitivus is used:
· in the presence of a definition expressed by an adjective in the comparative or superlative degree: GallMrum omnium fortiss-mi sunt Belgae (Caes.) - The bravest of all Gauls are the Belgae;
- for interrogative and indefinite pronouns (see lecture): Quis nostrum? which one of us? nemo nostrum none of us;
- for adjectives with the meaning of quantity, in the plural form (multi many, pauci few, etc.): multi nostrum many of us;
- for numerals: unus nostrum one of us .
In Russian, the combination genet + vus genris with these words is translated into the genitive case with the prepositions “from”, “between”, “among”.
References
Miroshenkova V.I., Fedorov N.A. Textbook of the Latin language. 2nd ed. M., 1985.
Nikiforov V.N. Latin legal phraseology. M., 1979.
Kozarzhevsky A.I. Textbook of the Latin language. M., 1948.
Sobolevsky S.I. Latin grammar. M., 1981.
Rosenthal I.S., Sokolov V.S. Textbook of the Latin language. M., 1956.
Gerund and verbal noun
A gerund is sometimes also called a verbal noun, since there are similarities between these grammatical phenomena in some respects, including:
- semantic - both forms name an action;
- morphological - both forms may have common inflections expressing identical grammatical categories;
- syntactic - both forms are used in positions characteristic of a noun (as a subject, complement, including after prepositions, as a nominal part of a compound predicate; in combination with possessive pronouns, etc.).
The exact set of similarities and differences may vary from language to language. However, the gerund in the languages in which it is prominent has a number of features that do not allow an equal sign to be placed between it and the verbal noun, in particular:
- The gerund has a regular formation, while the verbal noun is formed from the verb stem using various methods of word formation (suffixal (lep-k-a), prefixal (fly-let), affixless (running) etc.). In addition, verbal nouns may simply not be formed from many verbal stems;
- The gerund has an exclusively “procedural” meaning (names an action as a process), while the meaning of a verbal noun often has a more indirect connection with the meaning of the verb from which it is derived (cf. “sitting” ( as a result of sitting on a cold floor...) and "seat" ( seat upholstery...));
- The gerund, being a morphological form of a verb, retains the control characteristic of this verb (the method of syntactic connection with dependent words), while the noun often modifies it (for example, changes a non-prepositional connection to a prepositional one), for example (in English):
Based on these differences, the gerund in the grammars of some languages is distinguished into a special impersonal verb form in the system grammatical forms verb.
Features of the gerund in various languages
Gerund in English
Shaping
The formation of the gerund in English is characterized by exceptional regularity - by adding an ending to the base of the infinitive -ing, For example: doing, singing, flying, typing, lying etc. Some exceptions are verbs ending in the infinitive with a silent -e (falls out: rate - rating) and -ie (replaced with -y-: tie-tying ).
In addition, in English it is possible to form complex constructions of the form gerund (ing form) of the verb to be + passive past participle, which are considered as a gerund of the passive voice (in turn, the ing form of the verb itself is as a gerund of the active voice ). The perfect form of the gerund is also constructed: having (gerund of the verb “to have”) + passive past participle.
The gerund in English is not used in the plural form; in this, in particular, it differs from the verbal noun obtained from the gerund by substantivization, which also (in the singular) ends in -ing.
Form use
The most characteristic position for a gerund in a sentence is the position of the prepositional object after the predicate:
When the leaders saw it, they accused him of breaking the law.In this case, the gerund is substituted for a noun that could be used in this position:
After some verbs (like, dislike, loathe, start, etc.) the gerund is used in the position of a prepositional object. And it is precisely this use of the gerund that poses the greatest difficulty for students English language as a foreign language, since such verbal control is unpredictable and requires memorization:
A special group of verbs that require a gerund after themselves are formed by verbs perception(see, hear, feel, etc.). After them, the gerund is also used in the position of the second non-prepositional object, and the position of the first non-prepositional object is occupied by a noun or pronoun naming the person who performs the action called the gerund:
It should be remembered, however, that instead of a gerund at this place you can use an infinitive without “to” (the so-called bare infinitive):
A relatively uncharacteristic, but still possible position for a gerund is the position of the subject, as well as the position of the nominal part of the compound predicate:
In some cases, it is difficult to make a formal distinction between a gerund and adjacent forms (participle, verbal noun). So, for example, in the following sentence
The grammatical status of the word writing depends on whether we consider the word while to be a preposition (in which case it is a gerund) or a conjunction (in which case it is a participle). It is impossible to answer these questions unambiguously, but the existing tradition usually chooses one option. In the example we considered, in particular, writing is recognized as a participle.
Gerund in Latin
Shaping
The gerund in Latin is formed from the stem of the present tense verb using a suffix -nd- and noun endings in -O. The gerund, however, does not have a nominative case form, instead of which the present tense active infinitive is used in Latin. The dative case is also rare.
Action name in Polish
Controls the genitive case of a direct object and is determined by an adjective, but is capable of attaching the reflexive and passive indicator się.
Action name in Arabic
In Arabic, the name of action has become widely developed - a verbal formation called in this language masdar and denoting the name of the action and state expressed by the verb. Possessing all the properties of a name, Masdar at the same time has a number of verbal properties (an expression of action, a category of transitivity, control of the accusative case and the genitive case with a preposition). At the same time, masdar belongs to the verb group, and is, like the participle, a verbal form. But, unlike the personal forms of the verb, masdar denotes an action without connection with time and person.
Masdar can receive a specific meaning, while it is substantivized and gets the opportunity to be used in the plural form.
Gerund and verbal noun
A gerund is sometimes also called a verbal noun, since there are similarities between these grammatical phenomena in some respects, including:
- semantic - both forms name an action;
- morphological - both forms may have common inflections expressing identical grammatical categories;
- syntactic - both forms are used in positions characteristic of a noun (as a subject, complement, including after prepositions, as a nominal part of a compound predicate; in combination with possessive pronouns, etc.).
The exact set of similarities and differences may vary from language to language. However, the gerund in the languages in which it is prominent has a number of features that do not allow an equal sign to be placed between it and the verbal noun, in particular:
- The gerund has a regular formation, while the verbal noun is formed from the verb stem using various methods of word formation (suffixal (lep-k-a), prefixal (fly-let), affixless (running) etc.). In addition, verbal nouns may simply not be formed from many verbal stems;
- The gerund has an exclusively “procedural” meaning (names an action as a process), while the meaning of a verbal noun often has a more indirect connection with the meaning of the verb from which it is derived (cf. “sitting” ( as a result of sitting on a cold floor...) and "seat" ( seat upholstery...));
- The gerund, being a morphological form of a verb, retains the control characteristic of this verb (the method of syntactic connection with dependent words), while the noun often modifies it (for example, changes a non-prepositional connection to a prepositional one), for example (in English):
Based on these differences, the gerund in the grammars of some languages is distinguished into a special impersonal verb form in the system of grammatical forms of the verb.
Features of the gerund in various languages
Gerund in English
Shaping
The formation of the gerund in English is characterized by exceptional regularity - by adding an ending to the base of the infinitive -ing, For example: doing, singing, flying, typing, lying etc. Some exceptions are verbs ending in the infinitive with a silent -e (falls out: rate - rating) and -ie (replaced with -y-: tie-tying ).
In addition, in English it is possible to form complex constructions of the form gerund (ing form) of the verb to be + passive past participle, which are considered as a gerund of the passive voice (in turn, the ing form of the verb itself is as a gerund of the active voice ). The perfect form of the gerund is also constructed: having (gerund of the verb “to have”) + passive past participle.
The gerund in English is not used in the plural form; in this, in particular, it differs from the verbal noun obtained from the gerund by substantivization, which also (in the singular) ends in -ing.
Form use
The most characteristic position for a gerund in a sentence is the position of the prepositional object after the predicate:
When the leaders saw it, they accused him of breaking the law.In this case, the gerund is substituted for a noun that could be used in this position:
After some verbs (like, dislike, loathe, start, etc.) the gerund is used in the position of a prepositional object. And it is precisely this use of the gerund that poses the greatest difficulty for students of English as a foreign language, since such verbal control is unpredictable and requires memorization:
A special group of verbs that require a gerund after themselves are formed by verbs perception(see, hear, feel, etc.). After them, the gerund is also used in the position of the second non-prepositional object, and the position of the first non-prepositional object is occupied by a noun or pronoun naming the person who performs the action called the gerund:
It should be remembered, however, that instead of a gerund at this place you can use an infinitive without “to” (the so-called bare infinitive):
A relatively uncharacteristic, but still possible position for a gerund is the position of the subject, as well as the position of the nominal part of the compound predicate:
In some cases, it is difficult to make a formal distinction between a gerund and adjacent forms (participle, verbal noun). So, for example, in the following sentence
The grammatical status of the word writing depends on whether we consider the word while to be a preposition (in which case it is a gerund) or a conjunction (in which case it is a participle). It is impossible to answer these questions unambiguously, but the existing tradition usually chooses one option. In the example we considered, in particular, writing is recognized as a participle.
Gerund in Latin
Shaping
The gerund in Latin is formed from the stem of the present tense verb using a suffix -nd- and noun endings in -O. The gerund, however, does not have a nominative case form, instead of which the present tense active infinitive is used in Latin. The dative case is also rare.
Action name in Polish
Controls the genitive case of a direct object and is determined by an adjective, but is capable of attaching the reflexive and passive indicator się.
Action name in Arabic
In Arabic, the name of action has become widely developed - a verbal formation called in this language masdar and denoting the name of the action and state expressed by the verb. Possessing all the properties of a name, Masdar at the same time has a number of verbal properties (an expression of action, a category of transitivity, control of the accusative case and the genitive case with a preposition). At the same time, masdar belongs to the verb group, and is, like the participle, a verbal form. But, unlike the personal forms of the verb, masdar denotes an action without connection with time and person.
Masdar can receive a specific meaning, while it is substantivized and gets the opportunity to be used in the plural form.
The meaning of the gerund construction coincides with the meaning of the “accusative gerund with direct object” construction. They are translated into Russian in the same way:
Moreover, the gerund construction is used in Latin much more often than a phrase with a gerund.
Dat+vus auctMris
Dat+vus auctMris (“dative of the actor”) is used in the gerund construction to designate the person who must perform the action indicated by the gerund: Mihi legendum est. - I need to read.
Negative verbs (verb deponenti)
In Latin, there are a significant number of verbs that have the form of a passive voice, but at the same time have an active meaning. Such verbs are called deponents (verb deponenti).
The dictionary lists three forms of negative verbs: praesens, perfectum and infinit+vus praesentis. The base of the supine is determined by the form participium perfecti passivi, which is part of the passive perfect:
I ref. arbitror, arbitrtus sum, arbitrri think, believe
II reference vereor, ver-tus sum, verri to be afraid
IIIsp. utor, usus sum, uti to use
IVsp. metior, metus sum, met+ri to measure.
Just as among non-negative verbs there is a group of verbs of III conjugation in -io, among deferential verbs there is a group of verbs of III conjugation in -ior. They are conjugated as III conjugation verbs ending in -io in the passive voice:
morior, mortuus sum, mori to die.
Praesens indicativi
The most common III conjugation verbs in -ior:
morior, mortuus sum, mori to die;
gradior, gressus sum, gradi to walk, go (usually used with prefixes; in this case, the vowel in the middle of the word changes, for example, gradior I'm going - regredior I'm leaving);
patior, passus sum, pati endure, allow
The forms participium praesentis, gerund, supina, as well as the future participle (participium futkri), and the future infinitive (infinit+vus futkri) are formed as in the active voice.
The conjugation of negative verbs in the indicative and conjunctive does not differ from the conjugation of forms of the passive voice already known to us.
Imperat+vus praesentis of negative verbs is formed from the stem infect using the following endings:
in singulris: -re (i.e. formally the singular number of the imperative of these verbs looks like infinitivus praesentis activi)
in plurlis: -mini (i.e. formally the plural of the imperative coincides with the form of the 2nd plural praesens indicat+vi pass+vi)
In the III conjugation, a connecting vowel -- is inserted between the base and the ending.
I ref. arbitr-re! think! arbitra-m-ni! think!
II reference ver-re! be afraid! vere-m-ni! be afraid!
III reference ut--re! use it! ut-e-m+ni! use it!
IV reference met+-re! measure! meti-m-ni! measure!
The meaning of participium perfecti for positive verbs coincides with the meaning of Russian active past participles: the participle locutus, a, um from the verb loquor, locktus sum, loqui means “said”, while the participle from the non-definite verb dico, dixi, dictum, re dictus, a , um - “said”. Some positive verbs form participium perfecti, which has both active and passive meanings: expertus, a, um experienced and tested (from the verb experior, expertus sum, exper+ri to experience).
The gerund of deferential verbs, like the gerund of non-deferential verbs, has a passive meaning: loquendus, a, um that (that, those) that must be said, expressed.
Semi-deponenti verbs (verb semideponenti)
Semi-negative are those Latin verbs in which part of the forms are formed according to the type of active voice, and part - according to the type of passive voice. There are two types of semi-negative verbs: in some, the forms formed from the infective stem have active voice endings, and the forms formed from the perfect stem have passive voice endings: audeo, ausus sum, audre dare, dare; in others, on the contrary, the forms from the base of the infective are formed according to the passive voice model, and from the base of the perfect - according to the active model: revertor, reverti, (reversus), reverti return.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
In Latin, as in Russian, among the adjectives there is a group of qualitative adjectives. They name some quality of an object: beautiful, kind, etc. These qualities may manifest themselves in a particular person or object to a greater or lesser extent. Accordingly, from one or another qualitative adjective forms can be formed that express a greater or lesser degree of this quality: kind - kindest, etc.
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