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ABSTRACT
Influence of the Evilsfrom the Horde to medieval Rus'
Introduction
The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages, whose possessions were located in Europe and Asia. Its military power constantly kept all its neighbors in suspense and was not challenged by anyone for a very long time. The social structure of the Golden Horde was complex and reflected the variegated class and national composition of this predatory state. There was no clear class organization of society, similar to that which existed in Rus' and in Western European feudal states and which was based on hierarchical feudal ownership of land.
The status of a subject of the Golden Horde depended on his origin, services to the khan and his family, and his position in the military-administrative apparatus. In the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde, the dominant position was occupied by the aristocratic family of the descendants of Genghis Khan and his son Jochi.
This numerous family owned all the land of the state, it owned huge herds, palaces, many servants and slaves, innumerable wealth, military booty, the state treasury, etc. In the Golden Horde there were two highest administrative ranks: “daruga” and “baskak” - tribute collectors. The office occupied an important place in the management system. In the centers of the state the khan had divans; (how many of them were unknown). The divans had secretaries called bitikchi (scribes). The most important was the sofa, which controlled all income and expenses. In addition to the main bitikchi, there were also bitikchi in ordinary sofas.
In the administrative and political life of the Golden Horde, decrees were issued. These decrees were called labels.
Relations between the Golden Horde and Russian lands
In 1235, the kurultai (congress of the Mongolian nobility) decided the issue of the Great Western Expedition, where approximately half of the entire imperial army (approximately 70 thousand) went. The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu, was placed at the head of the army. After the conquest of the Volga Bulgaria, the Mordovians and the Polovtsians, the army approached the borders of Rus'. Two powerful blows followed. In the winter of 1237/38. The Tatars took Ryazan and Vladimir and quickly marched to Uglich, Kostroma, and Tver.
Fast movement and the use of siege equipment allowed the Tatars to individually destroy and besiege the cities of North-Eastern Rus'. In 1239/40 Batu's army marched through Southern and Southwestern Rus', then through Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary to conquer Europe. In 1242, the khan led his army from Croatia to the Volga steppes, where a new ulus of the empire was founded - the Golden Horde.
The Golden Horde in its heyday (until the end of the 14th century) was a huge state stretching from west to east from the Danube to Altai; in the south the border was the Caucasus, in the north - the regions of Central Russia (Kursk, Tula and Kaluga), where the local population was ruled by the Tatar administration. The power of Khan Batu had a clear administrative division into 4 uluses and 70 provinces. The economic base of the state was about 100 prosperous cities (Azov, Old Crimea, Astrakhan, Tyumen) led by the capital Saray. Developed handicraft production and trade were stimulated by a unified and sustainable monetary system and equipped roads. The power of the khan rested on a large army and a centralized state apparatus.
The Golden Horde’s policy towards Russian lands throughout its history, according to researchers, went through several stages:
1st stage (1243-1257). Formal control was exercised from Karakorum, and direct executive branch and the organization of military campaigns against Rus' were in the hands of the Golden Horde khans.
2nd stage (1257-1312). The peak of the collapse of Russian lands and the initial stage of the ethnogenesis of the Great Russians. The most difficult period of the yoke of the Horde: the structure of Rus''s vassal dependence on the Horde, the Basque system, was organized, and a population census was carried out.
3rd stage (1312-1328). Cancellation of baskachestvo. Against the backdrop of Islamization and the overcoming of nomadic traditions in the Golden Horde, the formation of a grand-ducal system of governing Russian lands takes place with the constant intervention of the khans in the internal political life of Rus'.
4th stage (1328-1357). The growth of anti-Horde sentiments, the struggle of political centers for primacy among the Russian principalities, which have special relations with the khan's power. In the future, there is a process of steady increase in the military and economic power of the Russian lands, led by Moscow, and the strengthening of their unity. The Russian princes manage, taking advantage of the strife in the Golden Horde, to weaken the yoke and, after a crushing blow in 1380 on the Kulikovo field, despite Tokhtamysh restoring the dependence of the Russian principalities, to virtually eliminate the organization and conduct of military raids on Moscow State in the 15th century
Golden Horde Russian state
The following changes have occurred in cities. In the XI-XII centuries. In Russian cities, that original way of life gradually emerged, which in Europe was called the “urban system.” Citizens in Rus' actively fought for urban liberties and played an important role in political affairs. Subsequently, the traditions of “popular rule” were not developed. After the reign of dependence on the Horde in Rus', extremely unfavorable conditions were created for the formation of a special urban system. This is due to a number of reasons. The cities suffered the most from the invasion; they were constantly subjected to raids and raids by the khan's ambassadors. Under these conditions, the ancient veche falls silent. But the strengthening of princely power, supported by the khan’s labels from Sarai, is rapidly progressing.
The power of the thousand is gradually concentrated in the hands of large boyar families and is passed on by inheritance. In the post-Mongol period, ancient democratic customs faded away, and in the XIV-XV centuries. cities become predominantly princely centers. After the Battle of Kulikovo, Rus' strengthened its faith in its national strength, which played an important role in its final victory over the Horde.
From that time on, the Russians stopped looking at the Horde as an irresistible force, as an inevitable and eternal punishment of God. Frequent raids on Rus' contributed to the creation of a unified state, as Karamzin said: “Moscow owes its greatness to the khans!” Kostomarov emphasized the role of the khan's labels in strengthening the power of the Grand Duke.
At the same time, they did not deny the influence of the devastating Tatar-Mongol campaigns on Russian lands and the collection of heavy tribute. The Mongol-Tatar conquests also led to a significant deterioration in the international position of the Russian principalities. Ancient trade and cultural ties with neighboring states were forcibly severed. Trade fell into decline. The invasion dealt a strong destructive blow to the culture of the Russian principalities. The conquests led to a long decline in Russian chronicle writing, which reached its peak at the beginning of Batu's invasion.
The Mongol-Tatar conquests artificially delayed the spread of commodity-money relations, and subsistence farming did not develop. As a result, a unique type of feudalism was formed in Rus', in which the “Asian element” was quite strongly represented. The formation of such a unique type was facilitated by the fact that, as a result of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Rus' developed for 240 years in isolation from Europe.
Conclusion
Thus, if we talk about the relationship between the Horde and Rus', the origin and development of the Golden Horde had a strong influence on the development of the Russian state, because for many years its history was tragically intertwined with the fate of the Russian lands and became an inseparable part of Russian history. The main result of the Mongol invasion - the destruction of cities and extermination of the population - played a role in all aspects of the life of Russian society. This was manifested in the reduction of the power of the veche, and then its complete destruction, in the destruction of the people's militia, which contributed to the creation of a regular army, and in the change in the position of almost all segments of society, which from free turned into those attached to the service of the monarch. The Mongol conquest led to a change in the type of state development.
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The darkest page in the history of the Russian State is 240 years of the Horde yoke, a terrible time of devastating invasions, humiliating and burdensome tribute, complete political dependence on the Golden Horde khans. It took centuries for the Russian princes to realize the horror of the slave state of Rus' under the rule of the Horde, the need to unite before a common enemy, and decided to repel the enslavers. This happened on the Kulikovo field, on the banks of the Nepryadva and Don. Here, on September 8 (21), 1380, the Russian army, led by the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich, defeated the hordes of Mamai, giving the country hope for a quick and long-awaited liberation from the Mongol yoke.
Ancient Rus' came under the rule of the Mongol-Tatars in 1240 after the invasion of Batu. At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongols created one of the largest military empires in world history, which was based on terror and violence. Only a strong and united state could resist such a community. Rus' was not like that then. A country with a common history, culture and traditions resembled a patchwork quilt of small principalities torn apart by internecine contradictions. Ryazan was the first to fall under the rule of the Mongol-Tatars in 1237: the Ryazan princes asked in vain for help from Vladimir and Chernigov, no one came to the rescue of the besieged city. For three years, Batu’s army enslaved all Russian lands with fire and sword, meeting only the resistance of small princely squads along the way.
Batya's invasion caused enormous damage to Rus'. Many cities and villages were wiped off the face of the earth. A striking example is the Kulikovo Field: not a single rural settlement of the pre-Mongol era remains here. Tens of thousands of people died: townspeople and peasants, warriors and princes who tried to defend Rus'. Thousands were taken into slavery. The Golden Horde imposed tribute on Rus'. In addition to monetary payments, the khans demanded that the Russian princes constantly send military detachments to serve the Horde. They had no chance to return to their homeland. Russian princes, in order to ascend the throne, had to come with a bow to the Golden Horde and receive a label on the grand-ducal table. And rule their native land with an eye on the Horde Baskaks - Mongol officials who controlled the activities of the princes, ensured the collection of tribute and recruited soldiers into the Mongol army.
The harmful influence of the Golden Horde led to complete political and economic dependence Rus'. According to historians, the total tribute from the Russian principalities and Veliky Novgorod amounted to up to 15 thousand rubles per year! The payment of tribute caused colossal economic damage to Russian lands. If the Baskaks did not get what they wanted, the Russian people were threatened with slavery in the Horde.
The unceremonious exactions of tribute collectors - detachments of Baskaks - often provoked resistance from individual Russian princes, cities and territories. This was the beginning of Rus''s struggle against the Horde yoke. But the disobedient were drowned in own blood. The slightest resistance to the Baskaks ended with the introduction of Horde punitive detachments. Rus' got rid of the Horde governors only in the 20s of the 14th century under the Grand Duke of Moscow and Vladimir Ivan Danilovich Kalita. This was preceded by the defeat of the Baskak detachment of Cholkhan (Shchelkan) in Tver: in 1325, the local population, supported by the Tver prince, repulsed the tribute collectors. The liquidation of the Baskas, the khan's governors in the conquered lands, was the first serious achievement in Rus''s struggle against the Golden Horde. But the tribute - in money, furs, bread and metal - remained: it was now collected by the Grand Duke of Vladimir and himself delivered to the Horde.
Only in the second half of the 14th century did the Russian principalities begin to refuse to pay tribute. One of the first to decide on this was the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich: the Golden Horde did not receive anything from Moscow in 1361 - 1371 and in 1374 - 1380. This was a serious challenge to the Horde. And he was heard. Failure to pay tribute to Moscow became one of the pretexts for Mamai’s campaign against Rus' in 1380. With the blessing of Sergius of Radonezh, the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry Ivanovich managed to assemble a unified Russian army. The majority of Russian principalities responded to the call to act as a united front against the common enemy. On September 8 (21), 1380, the Russian army entered into a decisive battle with the hordes of Mamai on the Kulikovo field and, having defeated the Horde mass, announced to Rus' the beginning of the end of the yoke.
One of the main victories of the Battle of Kulikovo was the overthrow of the stereotype of the invincibility of the Horde. The heroism of the Russian army, the united Rus' proved that liberation from the Golden Horde yoke is possible, that the Horde can and should be fought.
Even the sudden raid of the Khan of the Blue and Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh, on Moscow could not kill the hope for the liberation of Rus' from the Horde. The ancient capital burned in September 1382 and the renewal of tribute to the Horde could not change the course of history. After the death of Tokhtamysh, the process of collapse of the once great Golden Horde empire began and, on the contrary, the unprecedented rise of Ancient Rus'. There could no longer be any question of the previous system of domination over Russia.
The struggle of Rus' with the Golden Horde conquerors continued until the end of the 15th century. In 1472, the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III refused to pay tribute, which caused the campaign of the Khan of the Great Horde, Akhmat. The attempt of the Golden Horde to bring Rus' to its knees again was not crowned with success: in 1480 (standing on the Ugra River) the Horde yoke was ended once and for all.
17 . Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands. The rise of the Moscow Principality.
Creation of the Russian centralized state - the most important stage historical development of our country. Associated with it is the overcoming of feudal fragmentation, the unification of Russian lands under the leadership of Moscow and, as a result, the elimination of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. The formation of a single state created the necessary conditions for the further economic and political development of Russia, the development of national statehood and the Russian legal system. Russia's role has increased in both European and world history.
From the beginning of the 14th century. The fragmentation of Russian principalities ceases, giving way to their unification. It was based on economic reasons, in particular the strengthening economic ties between Russian lands. The starting point in the development of the feudal economy was progress Agriculture. Agricultural production is characterized in this period by the increasing spread of the arable system, which is becoming increasingly central regions country's predominant method of cultivating the land. The tillage system is gradually replacing the cutting system. Of no less importance was the constant expansion of cultivated areas through the development of new and previously abandoned lands. The growing need for agricultural tools entailed the development of crafts. The process of separating crafts from agriculture is intensively underway. There is a need for the exchange of labor products between the artisan and the peasant. Based on this exchange, local markets are created. The establishment of internal economic ties was facilitated by the development of foreign trade. All this urgently required the political unification of Russian lands and the creation of a single state. They were interested in his education wide circles Russian society and, first of all, the nobility, merchants and artisans.
Another prerequisite for the unification of Russian lands was the aggravation of social and class contradictions. The rise of agriculture encouraged the feudal lords to intensify the exploitation of the peasants. They sought not only economically, but also legally to secure the peasants in their estates and estates, to enslave them. Such a policy naturally provoked resistance from the peasant masses. The feudal lords needed guarantees that the process of enslavement would be completed. This task could only be solved by a powerful centralized state.
The factor that accelerated centralization was the external danger, which forced the Russian lands to unite in the face of a common enemy. It is noteworthy that the process of state consolidation made possible the Battle of Kulikovo, which began the liberation of Rus' from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. When, under Ivan III, it was possible to collect almost all the Russian lands, this yoke was finally overthrown.
The Russian centralized state developed around Moscow, which eventually became its capital. It became the center of unification because, due to its geographical location, it was better protected from external enemies and was located at the crossroads of river and land trade routes.
Founded in the 12th century, Moscow was initially a small city, which the Rostov-Suzdal princes gave as an inheritance to their younger sons. Only from the end of the 13th century. it became the capital city of an independent principality with a permanent prince. The first Moscow prince was the son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel, under whom at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries. The process of all-Russian state consolidation began. His successors, continuing the policy of unifying Russian lands, bought up or seized by force the lands of neighboring principalities, entered into agreements with weakened appanage princes, making them their vassals. The territory of the Moscow Principality also expanded due to the settlement of the Upper Trans-Volga region.
The foundation of the power of Moscow was laid under the second son of Daniel, Ivan Kalita (1325-1340), who managed to obtain from the Tatars a label for the great reign and thus acquired the right to collect tribute in their favor from all Russian lands. This right was later used by the Moscow princes in order to unite these lands under their rule. When the metropolitan see was transferred to Moscow from Vladimir in 1326, it became the center and Orthodox Church. Expanding the territory of the Moscow state, the great princes of Moscow turned their appanages into simple fiefdoms. Appanage princes, falling under their authority, became boyars - subjects of the Grand Duke of Moscow.
By the end of the 14th century. Muscovy strengthened so much that it was able to lead the struggle of Rus' to overthrow Tatar-Mongol oppression. The first sensitive blows were dealt to the Horde - the most significant on the Kulikovo field. Under Ivan III, the unification of Russian lands entered its final stage. Novgorod the Great, Tver, part of the Ryazan principality, and Russian lands on the Desna were annexed to Moscow. In 1480, after the famous “stand on the Ugra”, Rus' was finally freed from the Tatar yoke. The unification process was completed at the beginning of the 16th century. Prince Vasily III annexed the second half of the Ryazan principality, Pskov, to Moscow, and liberated Smolensk from Lithuanian rule. Together with Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod, Perm and other lands, non-Russian peoples also became part of the Moscow state: Meshchera, Karelians, Sami, Nenets, Udmurts, etc. The Russian state, like the Kiev state, became multinational.
Along with the unification of Russian lands and the annexation of other territories, the power of the great Moscow princes also grew. The Moscow principality gradually turned into a powerful public education, in which the previous division into appanages was replaced by a division into administrative-territorial units, headed by governors and volosts sent from Moscow.
Until the beginning of the 18th century, the Russian army was very different from Western troops, which is largely explained by the Horde heritage, as a result of which for a long time the main military unit of Rus' was light cavalry. She was faster and more maneuverable than heavily armed mounted knights.
The Tatars and Russians not only fought with each other, but also often carried out joint military operations, since under the banners of the Golden Horde, due to vassal dependence, the wars of Rus' often fought, which adopted the tactics of the nomads.
The dependence established in the middle of the 13th century soon began to be felt by contemporaries as a given: the oldest Russian chronicles represented the invasion of the eastern hordes as “punishment of the Lord,” and resistance to it was perceived as something doomed. At the same time, the Vladimir Bishop Serapion noted at the end of the 13th century that the Tatars “although they do not know the law of God, they do not kill their fellow believers, do not rob, and do not lock themselves in someone else’s.”
Khans' perception
In the 13th–15th centuries, the Russian people considered the khans to be kings, although before the yoke this title officially applied only to the rulers of Rome and Constantinople. Historian Anton Gorsky notes that this attitude towards the rulers of the Horde is associated with the capture of the capital of Byzantium in 1204 by Catholic crusaders, which was perceived in Rus' as the “destruction of the kingdom.”
Just shortly after this, the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars began, and the resulting Golden Horde, according to the researcher, took the empty place of the vanished “kingdom” in the worldview of the inhabitants of Rus'. One way or another, in 1261 the Orthodox regained Constantinople, and the emperor of Byzantium and the local patriarchate, to which the churches of Rus' were subordinate, became allies of the Horde.
Until the second half of the 14th century, until the Golden Horde began to disintegrate into separate parts, dependence on the Tatars in the Russian lands was not questioned, and armed conflicts with them mainly occurred due to princely strife, when one or another ruler attracted nomads to his side.
Orientation to the East
At first, another reason for clashes with the Tatars could have been non-payment of tribute, but soon its collection was transferred to the princes, who, with the help of their subordinates, collected and transported the dues to the Horde. A trip there was often fraught with danger and even the possibility of death: in the first hundred years of Tatar rule, more than ten Russian rulers were executed on the orders of the khans.
In addition to tribute, another duty of the population was the supply of warriors with which the Horde strengthened their armies.
The invasion of nomads reoriented Rus' from west to east. If in the 10th century the Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan wrote that the Russians mainly used a sword whose blade was “Frankish work,” then in the 15th century this weapon was finally supplanted by the Asian saber. Even more than a hundred years after the liberation from the Horde, the Venetian diplomat Francesco Tiepolo noted that the cavalry armor of noble warriors was made in Persia.
At the same time, Russian horses also had an oriental appearance: unlike Western breeds, they were short in stature, but much more unpretentious in maintenance. In the 16th century, European cavalry switched to formation in ranks, which required more equipment for the riders. Russian horsemen used simpler equipment: for example, a whip instead of spurs.
The basis of the army
The main strength of the Russian army, like that of the Tatars, was the cavalry, which dominated the battlefields until the end of the 17th century, when it began to be supplanted by infantry with firearms. The main tactics of the troops were the techniques mastered thanks to the nomads: quick attacks and feigned retreats, followed by luring the enemy into an ambush.
The Italian Paolo Giovio wrote at the beginning of the 16th century that the Tatars most often won thanks to surprise attacks, and not because of their fighting formation or steadfastness in battle. The lightning speed of the attack was facilitated by the riders' main weapon - the bow, which made it possible to conduct distance combat for some time. Moreover, thanks to the shallow saddle, the archer could shoot in all directions. The same was true for the Russian troops.
In close combat they used a saber and a spear, and to reduce weight and, therefore, increase mobility, Russian horsemen used light armor. Foreign contemporaries compared domestic riders with nomads, noting the similarity of their tactics, as well as their unpretentiousness in everyday life.
Mark on history
At the end of the 14th century, central power in the Golden Horde weakened, which is why local elites began a continuous struggle for primacy, which allowed the Russian lands, united under the leadership of Moscow, to gradually win independence. The defeated representatives of the Horde clans sought help from the Moscow rulers, who used the feuds in the east to their advantage.
Even after the Mongol-Tatar yoke fell in 1480, the Russian army had to interact with the Tatars, periodically fighting with the khanates that appeared instead of the Golden Horde, or conduct joint military operations with nomadic allies. One example of the alliance between Russians and Tatars was the Kasimov Khanate, which existed until 1681, which was completely controlled by Moscow.
Thanks to the close relationship, the nomads had a long-term impact on the Russian army, which seriously changed its appearance only at the beginning of the 18th century due to the advent of gunpowder and the reforms of Peter I. Nevertheless, the influence of the nomadic east on the Russian army, expressed in the maneuverability of cavalry, could be traced for many more years centuries.
Scientific and practical journal
udk 34 on the issue of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Rus'
Tsirulnikov Igor Sergeevich, student of the Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimir state university named after A. G. and N. G. Stoletov
Abstract: The article examines the issue of the influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Rus', describes the concepts of a number of historians and authors on this issue with references to their works describing their opinions and arguments on this or that position. Key words: Golden Horde, Rus', positive influence, minor influence, negative influence, concepts of historians.
The question of the influence of the Golden Horde on Rus', or more precisely, in determining the nature of this influence, was and remains open and debatable. There is still no common position. Why can't historians come to a consensus on the answer to the question raised earlier? There are many reasons: a huge time difference, a small amount of accurate information and documents to establish the nature of the influence, different arguments of the historians themselves. All this provided the basis for differences in the positions of different historians of different times. But the debatable nature of this issue allows us to consider it from different sides and points of view, to evaluate both positive and negative sides,
which is very important for analyzing the issue of the Horde’s influence on Rus'. This topic is very important both for the study of it by historians and for society as a whole, since the process involved in the issue was very long and left a huge imprint on Rus' in various aspects: political, social, spiritual. Therefore, the study of this issue should not be suspended or reduced to “no,” since an analysis of that time to resolve the issue will help to learn more information about Rus' at that time, about how Rus' developed and what was the influence of the Horde on this development: the oppression of the Yoke, diplomatic cooperation or little
About a question of influence of the Golden Horde on development of the state of Russia
Tsirul"nikov Igor" Sergeevich student of the Murom Institute (branch) of Vladimir State University named after A. G. and N. G. Stoletovs
Annotation: In the article the question of influence of the Golden Horde on the development of the state of Russia is considered, concepts of a number of historians and authors on the matter with references to their works describing their opinion and arguments on this or that position are described. Keywords: Golden Horde, Russia, positive influence, insignificant influence, negative influence, concepts of historians.
significant for the development of Rus' as a state. It is these three positions of historians that will be discussed below. But it is worth noting that these three “camps” of positions are not final and generally accepted. The issue is debatable, and therefore there are much more positions of historians.
Let us formulate them as follows:
1) the predominantly positive influence of the Golden Horde on Rus';
2) insignificant influence of the Golden Horde on Rus';
3) the extremely negative influence of the Golden Horde on Rus'.
It is also worth noting that, despite
such a division, in each of these points the opinions of historians are different in the level of influence: if we take the first point of view (the first “camp” of historians) as an example, then one historian may believe that the influence of the Horde on Russia was exclusively positive, and another historian , who also belongs to this “camp”, will believe that the influence was positive, but not without negative traits. There is only one conclusion: there are differences between historians of the same “camp”, and, therefore, this issue is very difficult to study and analyze.
Let's take a closer look at each of the presented positions.
1) The predominantly positive influence of the Horde on Rus'. N.M. Karamzin is considered the founder. In order to understand Karamzin’s position on this issue, it is worth turning to his book “History of the Russian State.” Let us examine excerpts from Chapter IV (“The State of Russia from the Invasion of the Tatars to John III”) of Volume V, since it best demonstrates Karamzin’s conclusions on the issue of the influence of the Horde on Rus'.
Karamzin identifies two sides in characterizing the influence of the Ig on Rus': negative and positive. “Batu’s invasion, a heap of ashes of corpses, captivity, slavery for such a long time constitute, of course, one of the greatest disasters known to us from the annals of the States...”, writes the author, thereby emphasizing, and therefore agreeing with many authors of the third point of view, that the Horde left an indelible and negative mark on the history of Rus'. But Karamzin also highlights a considerable number of positive aspects. “Another hundred years or more could have passed in the Princely civil strife: how would they have concluded? Probably, the death of our fatherland: Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, Sweden could divide it; then we would have lost both our state existence and the Faith, which were saved by Moscow; Moscow owes its greatness to the Khans,” concludes Karamzin. That is, the author emphasizes that without the invasion of the Horde and, as a consequence, the unity of the princes and people of Rus', the state could cease to exist due to internecine wars and the division of the territory of Rus' by European states. Also Karam-
Zin also sees other positive aspects of the Yoke for Rus': “One of the memorable consequences of Tatar domination over Russia was the rise of our Clergy, the proliferation of monks and church estates,” writes Karamzin. Also, because of the Horde, trade in Rus' developed, which, undoubtedly, was a good consequence for the state. But the main positive factor, which was announced earlier, is the unity of the state in the face of a common enemy, the end of civil strife that could have been disastrous for Rus'. This is precisely the point of view that N.M. Karamzin adheres to.
N.I. Kostomarov, as another representative of this point of view, in the article “The Beginning of Autocracy in Ancient Rus'” states that “in northeastern Russia before the Tatars, no step was taken towards the destruction of the appanage-veche system,” thereby agreeing with Karamzin’s position on the need for the Horde invasion for the unification of Rus'.
L.N. Gumilyov adheres to a special point of view, although he is classified precisely in this “camp” of historians. In the book “Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe” he argues this way: “No, of course, the Mongols were not good-natured! They could not do otherwise, because on all three fronts - Chinese, Western Asia and Cuman-Russian - they were confronted by forces that significantly exceeded them in numbers and weapons.<...>Another thing is important: the collision of different fields of perception of the world always gives rise to a violent reaction - death
excess passionaries, bearers of different traditions." Gumilyov does not prioritize enmity and clashes between the Horde and Rus'; he believes that the main thing is the symbiosis of ethnic groups, which gave rise to new rounds in the culture of these ethnic groups, thereby the author emphasizes the influence of the Horde on the culture of Rus'. His book traces some of the views of the “Eurasians” who saw only positive aspects in the Horde’s conquest of Russia, but even if we draw a conclusion from the positions of the above mentioned authors with the expectation that they relate to the position of the positive influence of the Horde on Russia, we will notice that they see both positive and negative features, which is historically more plausible than the views of the “Eurasians.”
We can conclude that many authors of the first point of view, with the exception of the “Eurasianists,” believe that even with the negative impact of the Horde on Rus', the enslavement of one state by another, oppression and raids, the Igo also left positive “fruits” for Russia: unity state, an end to civil strife, uplifting the spirit of the people, the clergy, strengthening autocracy and an imprint on the cultural heritage.
2) Insignificant influence of the Golden Horde on Rus'. Yes, most authors are inclined to believe that the Horde left an indelible mark on Rus', whether it was good or bad. But there are historians and authors who believe that, despite the existence of the Horde invasion of the Russian state, its further formation and changes in politics, both internal and external
this phenomenon had a minor impact and practically did not give any impetus for this or that change. Rus' went to everything on its own, and whether Igo or not, civil strife would have ceased to become obsolete, and the state from scattered and divided would have been transformed into a single and united state that could stand on a par with European ones.
Let us highlight three main representatives: S. M. Solovyov, K. D. Kavelin and V. O. Klyuchevsky. Let us analyze their points of view, united under one concept about the insignificant influence of the Horde on Rus'.
S. M. Solovyov in the book “History of Russia since Ancient Times” concludes that the dominance of the Tatars came to an end “due to the concentration and strengthening of the European state that began here” (by “here” is meant Rus'). Consequently, Solovyov argues that the formation of a unified state was carried out without the influence of the Horde, it only accelerated this process. But due to the fact that Solovyov paid little attention to studying this issue, most historians criticize his position.
K. D. Kavelin, in the article “A Look at the Legal Life of Ancient Rus',” states that “foreign conquerors never settled among us and therefore could not give our history their national character.”
“Their [Tatars’] influence on our internal life was limited to sending tax collectors to Russia.<...>And the Mongol influence was limited to a few words included in
Scientific and practical journal
our dictionary; maybe, and even probably, several customs that are not entirely flattering for us.” Kavelin, like Solovyov, does not see a big role for the Horde in the formation of a unified state, traditions and orders in Rus'. Only a small imprint was left by raids, tribute and other things that happened during the Tatar invasion.
V. O. Klyuchevsky in his work “Russian History” also believes that the Horde was not even interested in interfering in the affairs of Rus', therefore, its contribution to the development of Rus' was practically zero. He writes: “The Horde khans did not impose any of their rules on Rus', being content with tribute, they even poorly delved into the order that was in effect there. And it was difficult to delve into it, because it was impossible to discern any order in the relations between the local princes.” Klyuchevsky is categorical in relation to Rus' itself, considering the relations in the state of that time to be a kind of chaos, so there was no point in the Tatars interfering in such relations between the princes.
As can be seen from the conclusions of these authors, the position about the insignificant influence of being and there are arguments for this. But even with the insignificant influence of the Horde on Rus', historians of this point of view still do not deny the invasion of the Horde itself and admit small, but still existing imprints in the history of Rus' left by the Ig.
3) The negative influence of the Golden Horde on the Russian state.
Let's move on to the most common point of view among historians. Let's highlight how
and before, the main representatives: A. Richter, M. S. Gastev and B. D. Grekov together with A. Yu. Yakubovsky. It is worth understanding that the list does not end with these authors.
A. Richter, as a successor of Karamzin’s ideas, brought up by his books, in his work “Research on the influence of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia”, transmitted through the materials “Domestic Notes”, argues that “under the dominance of the Mongols and Tatars, the Russians were almost degenerated into Asians, and although they hated their oppressors, they imitated them in everything and entered into kinship with them when they converted to Christianity.” From this excerpt it is clear that the Igo had a detrimental effect on Rus', on the orders, traditions, and faith of the people.
M. S. Gastev also believes that the influence of the Ig on Rus' was detrimental and negative for the entire Russian people and for the development of the state as a whole. He writes that the time of the Tatar invasion is “a time of the greatest disorder, the greatest misfortune for our fatherland, one of those times that weighs down on a person and suffocates him.” As you can see, both authors are unanimous in their opinion about the influence of the Horde on Rus'.
B. D. Grekov, together with A. Yu. Yakubovsky, in the work “The Golden Horde and Its Fall,” condemn many authors of both the first and second points of view for their assessment of the influence of the Horde on Rus' and their lack of understanding of the real reasons for the cessation of civil strife and other reasons “ inhibition" of the development of Rus'. “Not with the assistance of the Tatars, but precisely in the process of the difficult struggle of the Russian people against the Golden Horde-
“The Russian state with Moscow at its head was created by Russian oppression,” the authors conclude, emphasizing the severe and irreparable consequences of the Tatar Yoke for Rus'.
Most of the authors of this point of view are inclined to believe that the Tatar-Mongol Yoke stopped Rus' in its development, throwing it back several hundred years; it united not because of cooperation with the Horde, but in the fight against it, in defending the sovereignty of the state. This point of view is directly opposite to the first, although it has its own differences in assessing the severity of the consequences of the Tatar Yoke for Rus', which makes it possible to note the controversial nature of each point of view.
So, we can summarize all of the above. The question of the nature of the influence of the Golden Horde on Rus' remains debatable and controversial to this day. Each group of historians provides its own arguments to support its conclusions and positions. This makes this issue relevant and unresolved both in the past and in the present, and, possibly, in the future. It is worth noting that one of the reasons for the disagreement is the large temporal difference between generations, as well as the small number of reliable sources of that time that can give a complete picture of the events of those centuries. Therefore, persistent study and search for answers to it will provide more diverse information both about the state of Rus' and about neighboring tribes and states.
Notes
1. Karamzin N. M. History of the Russian State. St. Petersburg, 1616-1829.
2. Kostomarov N. I. The beginning of autocracy in Ancient Rus'. St. Petersburg, 1872.
3. Gumilev L.N. Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. M., 1997. Part 4. Chapter XX.
4. Solovyov S. M. History of Russia since ancient times. St. Petersburg, 1851-1879.
5. Kavelin K.D. A look at the legal existence of ancient Rus'. M., 1989.
6. Klyuchevsky V. O. Russian history. M., 1993. Lecture XXII.
7. Research on the influence of the Mongol-Tatars on Russia // Otechestvennye zapiski. 1825. T. XXII. N 62.
8. Gastev M. S. Reasoning about the reasons that slowed down civic education in the Russian state before Peter the Great. M., 1832.
9. Grekov B. D., Yakubovsky A. Yu. The Golden Horde and its fall. M., 1950. Part 2. Chapter 7.
The work was added to the site website: 2015-10-28Plan
Introduction3
1. Education of the Golden Horde 5
2. The influence of the Golden Horde on the formation of the Russian state8
3. 16
Conclusion19
21
Introduction
The topic I have chosen is one of discussion. This is what attracted me. I believe that the roots of everything that is happening today lie in those ancient times when the Russian state as such did not yet exist. Today we are faced with many questions, one of them: “Which is Russia gravitating towards: the West or the East?” What is the misunderstanding between the West and Russia and how long has it existed? The answer to this and other questions can only be found in the past, because historical processes are repeated. We must study them and draw conclusions.
There are many different versions events in Russia 13-15 centuries. The most famous and popular version is known to us from the course school history. For us, the Tatar-Mongol yoke is inextricably linked with the invasion of nomads, the destruction of cities, many thousands of dead, and the exorbitant tribute levied on the people. The Horde had power over Russia, and this power is most accurately characterized by the word “yoke.” The Great Khans treated Rus' as a vassal state, the helplessness of which was supported by large tributes and conscription. There was a decline in culture in Rus': some crafts were lost, many books were burned.
There were also completely opposite versions. For example, L.N. Gumilyov argued that Rus' and the Golden Horde until the 13th century. Not only were they not enemies, but they even had some allied relations. He cites the following facts to support his idea. Firstly, Tatar-Mongol detachments were not constantly present in Rus'. Secondly, it is known from many sources that Prince Alexander Nevsky often traveled to Khan Batu. Gumilyov connects this fact with the organization of the union. Thirdly, Gumilyov cites the fact that the Mongols defended Novgorod in 1268. Fourthly, in his books Gumilyov mentions the opening of an Orthodox bishopric in the Golden Horde, which, in his opinion, would hardly be possible in the event of hostility between these countries. Fifthly, after Berke came to power in the Horde, who established Islam as the state religion, religious persecution of the Orthodox Church did not begin in Rus'.
L.N. Gumilyov’s position is rather based on inferences and willful interpretation of historical facts. It is doubtful that he alone of all historians has information about such a development of events. For example, why does not a single famous historian mention the fact of the defense of Russian cities by Mongol-Tatar detachments? Thus, there are many “dark spots” in the historical concept of L.N. Gumilyov, but it deserves special attention due to the originality of the idea and reasonable and logical argumentation.
In addition to the concept of L.N. Gumilyov, there is the concept of G.V. Nosovsky and A.T. Fomenko. Its essence is that the Horde and Rus' are practically the same state. They believe that the Horde was not a foreign entity that captured Rus', but simply an eastern Russian regular army that was an integral part of ancient Russian state. From the point of view of this concept, the “Tatar-Mongol yoke” is simply a period of military government of the state, when the supreme ruler was the commander-khan, and in the cities there were civil princes who were obliged to collect tribute for the maintenance of the army. In the light of this concept, the frequent Tatar-Mongol raids were nothing more than the forced collection of tribute from those areas that did not want to pay.
Almost all other famous historians believe that the relationship of the Golden Horde to Rus' cannot be called allied. In their opinion, the Horde still had power over Russia, and this power is most accurately characterized by the word “yoke.”
It seems to me that the Tatar-Mongol conquest had a negative impact on the development of Rus'. My task is to study this period in history and draw my own conclusions about what kind of relationship there really was between the Russian principalities and the Golden Horde, whether it was a yoke or an alliance, and what consequences this relationship had.
1.
Education of the Golden Horde
Mongol tribes in the 12th century. engaged in cattle breeding and animal hunting; They then lived in Koshem nomadic tents. The need to change pastures for their livestock forced them to wander.
The Mongols lived a tribal way of life. They were divided into clans, tribes and uluses (peoples). Mongolian society 12th century. was divided into 3 classes: the steppe aristocracy, commoners and slaves, who, however, were not sold. At that time, the Mongols practiced shamanism.
In 1206, on the Onone River, the leaders of the nomadic tribes gathered for a kurultai, where they proclaimed Temujin, one of the successful steppe leaders, as their supreme leader and named him Genghis Khan. This kurultai played a tragic role in the fate of all Ancient Rus'. Genghis Khan forcibly united under his hand all the Mongols, some neighboring tribes, and, on the basis of tribal characteristics, created an army that had no equal in the 12th-13th centuries, the era of developed feudalism, in the Central Asian states, in Rus' and in Europe.
The ordinary unit of this army was a dozen - a family, the closest relatives of one yurt, one village. Then came the hundred, which included people of the same kind. A thousand could unite two or three villages, then there was darkness - a detachment of ten thousand.
The new state of the Mongol-Tatars, as in other countries, at the early stage of the development of feudalism, was distinguished by its strength and solidity. The nobility was interested in expanding pastures and organizing campaigns with neighboring agricultural peoples who were located more high level development. Most of them, like Rus', experienced a period of feudal fragmentation, which greatly facilitated the implementation of the aggressive plans of the Mongol-Tatars. Before his death in August 1227, Genghis Khan was able to lay the territorial foundation of a huge new empire, which included not only the peoples living in the immediate vicinity of Mongolia, but also China, Central Asia, and the steppes west of the Irtysh. In the process of subjugating a large part of the continent, numerous nomads joined the Mongols. The death of Genghis did not change the policy of his heirs.
Without knowledge of the history and ways of development of a huge, powerful, in many ways unusual and bloodthirsty state, without studying its role in the history of medieval Rus', it is impossible to understand many aspects of the formation of the Russian state.
What is the secret of the victories of the Mongol-Tatars? The Mongol army did not require long preparations for war. The very way of life of a nomad was conducive to mounting a horse at any time and setting out on a campaign. The Mongol dwellings were fully adapted for a long journey. The favorite weapon of the Mongols was the bow, the arrows of which hit targets hundreds of meters away. Many had spears and sabers, as well as a lasso. During the campaigns of conquest, the Mongol army learned to use siege weapons: rams and throwing devices. Usually the nomadic army was divided into 3 parts: a center and 2 flanks. When the battle began, the center feignedly retreated, luring the enemy, and if he went deeper into the Mongol positions, losing caution in anticipation of victory, then the flanks struck from both sides, and the center turned around and resumed the battle. Skillful conduct of battles, a large, very strong and disciplined army, use of the political situation in the states, cunning and deceit, fragmentation in the actions of princely squads and city militias helped the Mongols win one victory after another. The fragmentation of Russian lands played a fatal role in preventing the invasion of the conquerors from being repelled. Scorched, plundered Rus' was forced to submit to its enemies. A long era has begun in the history of Russia, which is characterized by the ancient concept of “yoke” (yoke).
The Golden Horde is a Mongol-Tatar state that was created by Genghis Khan's grandson, Batu Khan, in the early 1240s.
The Golden Horde included Western Siberia, Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, the Northern Caucasus, Crimea, Dasht-i-Kipchak, the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Volga region. The indigenous Russian lands were not part of the Golden Horde, but were in vassal dependence on it; Russian princes paid tribute and obeyed the orders of the khans. The center of the Golden Horde was the Lower Volga region, where under Batu the capital was the city of Saray.
After the completion of the period of conquest, which was accompanied by monstrous destruction and mass casualties, the main goal of the Golden Horde rulers was to enrich themselves by robbing the enslaved population. The bulk of the land and pastures was concentrated in the hands of the Mongol nobility, in whose favor the working population bore duties.
2.
The influence of the Golden Horde on the formation of the Russian state
From 1243, an era began in the history of Rus', which Russian historians call the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Second half of the 13th century. - undoubtedly its most difficult period, when out of 74 cities that were attacked, 49 were destroyed, of which 14 were not revived and turned into villages 19. According to historians, in the second half of the 13th century. The Tatars invaded Russian borders 14 times. The cities suffered the most from the Mongol-Tatars, as they took away artisans, as a result of which entire specialties, such as jewelry and glassmaking, disappeared. Trade ties with Europe were disrupted, with the exception of Novgorod, as there was simply nothing to trade, resulting in economic isolation. The Russian people who fell under the rule of the conquerors had to learn to live in new conditions, under a new state system. It was announced that from now on the supreme ruler of Rus' is the head of the Mongol Empire. The Horde khan was given the title “tsar” (previously, the Russians only gave this title to the Byzantine emperor). Each principality was now considered, first of all, a “tsar’s ulus” (the khan’s possession), and only secondarily, a “princely fatherland” (that is, the hereditary possession of a prince).
After the hurricane invasion of Batu’s hordes, when Russian military strength was crushed and dozens of cities were burned, a system of heavy dependence on the Horde conquerors began to take shape, based on the fear of new invasions. Novgorod and Pskov, fortunately, were almost not subjected to a devastating defeat, but experienced a strong onslaught from the Germans, Swedes and Lithuanians. The foreign policy situation of Rus' was desperate. Internal internecine strife, which now and then led to bloody clashes, brought no less disaster and shame.
In accordance with the procedures adopted in the Mongol Empire, all princes who survived the invasion were obliged to come to Batu and receive from him a “label” - a letter of grant confirming the authority to govern the principality. The Mongol khans did not interfere in the internal affairs of the Russian principalities. This was a recognition of dependence and legal formalization of the Horde yoke. But in fact, the yoke took shape much later, in 1257, when a census of Russian lands was carried out by Horde officials - “numerals” - and regular tribute was established. Tribute farmers appeared in Russian cities - Besermens and Baskaks, who controlled the activities of Russian princes. Based on the “denunciations” of the Baskaks, a punitive army came from the horde and dealt with the disobedient ones. The power of the Golden Horde over Russia rested on the threat of punitive campaigns for any attempts at disobedience.
The question of the influence of the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of Horde rule on the history of Russia has long been a controversial one. There are three main points of view on this problem in Russian historiography. Firstly, this is a recognition of the very significant and predominantly positive impact of the conquerors on the development of Rus', which pushed the process of creating a unified Moscow (Russian) state. The founder of this point of view was N.M. Karamzin, and in the 30s of our century it was developed by the so-called Eurasians. At the same time, unlike L.N. Gumilyov, who in his studies painted a picture of good neighborly and allied relations between Rus' and the Horde, they did not deny such obvious facts as the ruinous campaigns of the Mongol-Tatars on Russian lands and the collection of heavy tribute.
Other historians (among them S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, S. F. Platonov) assessed the impact of the conquerors on the internal life of ancient Russian society as extremely insignificant. They believed that the processes that took place in the second half of the 13th – 15th centuries either organically followed from the trends of the previous period, or arose independently of the Horde.
Finally, many historians are characterized by a sort of intermediate position. The influence of the conquerors is regarded as noticeable, but not determining the development of Rus' (and definitely negative). The creation of a unified state, according to B. D. Grekov, A. N. Nasonov, V. A. Kuchkin and others, occurred not thanks to, but in spite of the Horde.
The Horde sought to actively influence the political life of Rus'. The efforts of the conquerors were aimed at preventing the consolidation of Russian lands by pitting some principalities against others and weakening them mutually. Sometimes the khans went to change the territorial and political structure of Rus' for these purposes: on the initiative of the Horde, new principalities were formed (Nizhny Novgorod) or the territories of old ones were divided (Vladimir).
Grand Duke Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky pursued a cautious and far-sighted policy towards the Golden Horde. He tried to maintain peaceful relations with the khan in order to prevent new devastating invasions and restore the country. He paid main attention to the fight against crusading aggression and managed to secure the northwestern border. Most of his successors continued the same policy.
In order to prevent Rus' from becoming too strong, the Horde khans decided to create a perfect system of Horde control over the political life of all of Rus'. The most widespread was the pitting of leading princes against each other. The Horde creates two great principalities in Rus' so that, pitting these two principalities and princes against each other, they control Southern and North-Eastern Rus'. In opposition to Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Galitsky was put up. Daniil took the position of an enemy of the Horde, but, not having enough strength, was forced to lay down his arms. Alexander, realizing that militarily Rus' was powerless against the Horde, bowed to the khans, giving North-Eastern Russia the necessary time to restore the destruction inflicted by Batu. It was necessary to pay for peace with the Horde, for peace on Russian land. Alexander had to assist Horde officials in the census of Russian lands for the regular collection of tribute. The influence of the Horde extended to both the political and economic aspects of life in North-Eastern Russia. But Alexander developed very vigorous activity, concluding an agreement with Mindaugas, the Lithuanian prince, against the Order in 1262, which frightened Horde diplomacy. Not without her participation in 1263, Mindovg was killed in a princely feud, and
Alexander was summoned to the Horde and died on the way back under mysterious circumstances. The Horde benefited from Alexander's death and the policy of pitting contenders for the grand princely throne against each other after his death. His heirs began a long-term struggle for power among themselves. War followed war, and the princes did not hesitate to bring detachments of Tatars with them to Rus'. Vladimir-Suzdal Rus' gradually crumbled into small and microscopic destinies. The Grand Dukes of Vladimir no longer had real power. The former centers of North-Eastern Rus' by the end of the 13th century. lost their former strength and wealth. People fled to lands far from the traditional routes of Tatar raids, hidden by forests. And the ancient glorious cities are being replaced by new centers. First of all, Tver and Moscow. The history of the future liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke is connected with them.
Typical feudal princely strife acquired the significance of the beginning of the unification process. The main rivals in this struggle in the first third of the 14th century. Moscow and Tver became, turning from the capitals of small peripheral principalities into large feudal centers of North-Eastern Russia. Their economic rise and political rise was facilitated by the rapid increase in their population due to the influx of peasants and artisans from other lands who fled under the pressure of the Tatars.
Why was Moscow the birthplace of a great power? Alone argued that “Moscow owes its greatness to the khans,” others explained the strength of the Moscow principality by the benefits of its geographical location, control over river trade routes and associated economic advantages. Still others believed that the reason was that Moscow, since 1325, had become the “seat” of the Metropolitan of All Rus', its spiritual center. But Tver also stood on the Volga, which from ancient times was a water trade artery. Apparently the “demographic factor” played a decisive role. In the Moscow region there was a constant influx of population from lands subject to frequent attacks by the Horde. Covered from the north-west of Lithuania by the Tver Principality, and from the east and south-east of the Golden Horde by other Russian lands, the Moscow Principality was less subject to sudden devastating raids of the Golden Horde.
The role of the personalities of the first Moscow rulers seems no less important. Through military conquests, bloody murders, bribery of the Golden Horde khans, dynastic marriages, and the purchase of entire villages and cities with money, they increased their wealth. In the Horde they slandered their rivals, “for bribes” extorting labels for other principalities. But one more thing is often forgotten characteristic feature Moscow princes. They are thrifty and thrifty. This economic activity yielded results - already in the 14th century. the core of the Moscow principality was developed as much as the then level of economic and technological development allowed. This made it possible for the Moscow princes to gather and accumulate strength, to gradually create superiority in material and human resources in order to act as organizers and leaders in the unification process that had begun. The geographical position of the Moscow principality also predetermined its role as the ethnic core of the emerging Great Russian nation.
The founder of the dynasty of Moscow princes was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel. Under him, the rapid growth of the Moscow Principality began.
Meanwhile, an event occurred in the Horde that had far-reaching consequences. The young Uzbek Khan introduced Islam as the official religion. The conversion of the Golden Horde to Islam marked the beginning of a new stage in relations with Russia - an era of incessant political murders of Russian princes and the resumption of punitive expeditions to Rus', which almost ceased in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. The constant intervention of the Tatar khans in the political processes taking place in Rus' was the rule during this period. Thus, the unsuccessful uprising in Tver in 1327, suppressed by the Tatars with great cruelty, played into the hands of Moscow. The punitive army was led by none other than the Moscow prince Ivan Kalita. Having earned the complete “trust” of the Tatars, Ivan Kalita not only received the label to reign, but also the right to collect tribute from all Russian lands. The collection of tribute, carried out with inexorable cruelty, was a means of Moscow accumulating significant wealth, as well as a measure of influence on other Russian lands. Kalita, without resorting to weapons, through a policy of generous offerings to the khans and bribes to the khan's officials, was able to significantly expand the territory of the Moscow principality at the expense of the Galich, Uglich and Beloozersky principalities. The strengthening of Moscow leads to the fact that the Metropolitan moves his residence here; the city thereby becomes the ecclesiastical center of Rus'. The significant superiority in material and human resources achieved by Moscow during Kalita's reign was reinforced by the construction of a stone Kremlin in 1367, which strengthened the military-defensive potential of the Moscow principality. Kalita's son Simeon had already laid claim to the title of "Grand Duke of All Rus'" and for his arrogance received the title "Proud". Foreign policy Kalita was aimed at maintaining the appearance of complete submission to the Tatars, so as not to give rise to new invasions. During his reign, the raids stopped.
From the second half of the 14th century. The second stage of the unification process begins, the main content of which was Moscow’s defeat of its main political rivals and the transition from Moscow’s assertion of its political supremacy in Russia to the state unification of Russian lands around it and the organization of a nationwide struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke. Many historians note this moment as determining the process of statehood formation.
From the second half of the 14th century. Signs of feudal fragmentation and general weakening of the Golden Horde began to appear, and independent and semi-independent “hordes” began to emerge within it. Protracted strife between rival factions of the feudal nobility in the Horde was accompanied by a change of khans or the simultaneous rule of two warring khans. Relations between the Horde and Russia became extremely unstable and tense. The number of raids by Horde rulers on Russian lands, especially on the Nizhny Novgorod and Ryazan lands neighboring the Horde, increased sharply.
The beginning of the collapse of the Horde was temporarily stopped by Temnik Mamai, who came to power in the late 70s. Having united almost all the forces of the Horde, Mamai began preparations for the campaign against Russia, setting, along with the usual predatory goals, also the tasks of restoring weakened power over the Russian lands and, above all, the defeat of the Moscow principality. However, this campaign, which ended with the defeat of the Horde troops in the Battle of Kulikovo, showed that Moscow was really becoming a strong independent center of the Russian lands. The defeat of Mamai, and the subsequent Horde turmoil, which led to the final collapse of the predatory state, a demonstration of the superiority of Russian military art over the military art of the enemy, strengthening state power in Rus' - noticeable consequences of the battle on the Kulikovo field. At the same time, the Battle of Kulikovo marked the beginning of the revival of the national self-awareness of the Russian people. But two years later, the Moscow prince did not have enough strength to resist a new raid, this time by Khan Tokhtamysh. The Horde again managed to prevent the excessive strengthening of the Moscow state.
The era of Ivan III is the era of the most difficult work of Russian diplomacy, the era of strengthening the Russian army, necessary for the defense of the Russian state. In order to neutralize the Lithuanian prince's bid for the Catholicization of the church, Ivan marries Sophia Paleologus, the niece of the last emperor of Byzantium. Thus, Ivan becomes the successor of the emperors of Byzantium and receives the legal title “sovereign of all Rus'.”
In 1480, Ivan III began to prepare the political ground for overthrowing the Horde yoke. As soon as Moscow received news that Khan Akhmat was heading towards the Don with all his strength, the Grand Duke posted regiments on the Oka. Khan Akhmat, having learned that strong regiments were deployed on the Oka, went to Kaluga to join the Polish and Lithuanian troops. Having determined the direction of the Horde's march, Ivan III intercepted it on the Ugra River. Moscow, meanwhile, was besieged.
November 11, 1480, the day of Khan Akhmat’s departure from the banks of the Ugra, is considered to be the day of the complete liberation of the Russian land and the Russian people from the Horde yoke, from any dependence of the otkhans of the Golden Horde.
3.
Consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'
What were the consequences of the conquest of the principalities by the Mongol-Tatars?
In the 11th century Rus' reached its peak and stood on the same level as European countries in economic development and government structure. But the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars stopped its development and threw it back a step lower, while Europe continued to move forward. Although, Karamzin says, it is unknown how the fate of Russia would have turned out if not the Tatar-Mongols, but, say, the Swedes, Poles or Lithuanians had captured it.
In the 11th-13th centuries. In Russian cities, that original way of life gradually emerged, which in Europe was called the “urban system.” Citizens in Rus' actively fought for urban liberties and played an important role in political affairs. Subsequently, the traditions of “popular rule” were not developed. After the reign of the Horde yoke in Rus', extremely unfavorable conditions were created for the formation of a special urban system. This is due to a number of reasons. The cities suffered the most from the invasion; they were constantly subjected to raids and raids by the khan's ambassadors. Under these conditions, the ancient veche falls silent. But the strengthening of princely power, supported by the khan’s labels from Sarai, is rapidly progressing. The power of the thousand is gradually concentrated in the hands of large boyar families and is passed on by inheritance. In the post-Mongol period, ancient democratic customs faded away, and in the 14th-15th centuries. cities became predominantly princely centers.
The economic and cultural significance of the city was largely determined by the fact that skilled artisans worked here - architects, stonemasons, carvers, masters of “copper, silver and gold”, icon painters. Their products were famous far beyond the borders of Rus'. The Mongol invasion caused particularly heavy damage to urban crafts. The physical extermination and captivity of thousands of artisans undermined the very core of the city's economy. In the Middle Ages, crafts were based on manual techniques, and therefore on skills passed on from generation to generation. The master-apprentice-student connection has been broken. Research has shown that in a number of crafts in the second half of the 13th century. there was a fall or even complete oblivion of complex technology, its coarsening and simplification. After the Mongol conquest, many technical techniques familiar to the masters of Kievan Rus were lost.
As for the religion of the Russian people, it was during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke that Christianity truly became the religion of the Russian people, since religion - a common ideology - helped them unite in the struggle. The enslavement of the people had an impact on its moral character. Karamzin argues that the Russian state, despite 250 years of influence of Eastern culture, still remained close to Europe, although Europe itself did not recognize this. Probably the basis of morality was a common religion.
But Russia still lags behind Europe, in particular in the legal case. “Russkaya Pravda” ceased to fulfill its functions as a judge of justice, and they were judged “according to their conscience” or sorted things out in a duel. Such “judicial” proceedings were typical for Europe in the 10th century.
Russia also lagged behind in the art of war. Europe developed and improved battle tactics, and Russia was saved by exceptionally talented commanders.
However, there were also positive aspects. New trade routes opened to replace the ancient route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.”
The great Moscow princes managed to put an end to their appanages and create a politically united Russian state, despite the fact that its individual regions, the “lands,” continued for another two centuries to live a self-sufficient, economic life isolated from one another.
Three main features of the formation of Russian statehood can be noted. This is, firstly, the combat system of the state. The second feature was the non-legal nature of internal management and social composition. Centralization was accompanied by the enslavement of the peasantry and increased class differentiation.
The third feature of the Moscow state order was unlimited supreme power with an indefinite scope of action. Byzantine and Eastern influences led to strong despotic tendencies in the structure and politics of power. The main support of autocratic power was not the union of cities with the nobility, but the local nobility.
It was these features that determined the historical development of the state over the next centuries.
Conclusion
Having studied the works of famous historians, their views on the events of those times, I did not discover for myself any new interpretation of what happened. Moreover, I am inclined to the most common point of view, which is that the relations between the Mongol-Tatars and the Russian principalities were nothing more than a yoke.
Meanwhile, I do not consider it correct to represent the Mongol-Tatars as barbarians, whose behavior can only be explained by the desire to destroy. It seems to me that the Russian principalities in the 13-15 centuries. were vassal territory of the Golden Horde. The Mongol-Tatars defended their possessions from encroachment Western states, hence the “military alliance” theory.
Without having due to inconsistency of climatic and natural conditions The way of life of nomads made it possible to populate the territories of Russian principalities and thereby keep them under direct control, the Horde controlled from a distance. It must be said that the Horde khans were by no means stupid people, pursuing a kind of “collision” policy. But the Russian princes soon adopted elements of the “double game.” By the way, thanks to the right to collect taxes, the Moscow principality significantly replenished its treasury, money from which was used to buy up surrounding lands. It was the tax collection system and some other services, for example, the Yamskaya one, that were borrowed from the Mongol-Tatars.
Answering the question I asked in the introduction, I want to say that Russia’s closeness to the West seems to me undeniable. Having become acquainted with the life and worldview of Europe and the East at that time, in the light of today's events, I am convinced that Russia must support the West. I don't mean that we should follow the same path that Europe took. Our paths diverged in the 13th century. Russian politicians, economists and many other specialists must work out their own path for the country.
Did the Mongol-Tatar invasion affect the dynamics of the formation of the Russian state? It seems to me that the unification of Russian lands would still have happened, just as it happened in Europe. All countries would sooner or later come to this. What the yoke really affected was the character of Russian statehood.
The invasion of nomads, in my opinion, “tempered” the Russian people, largely changing their character, both for the better and for the worse. Undoubtedly, I agree with the predominantly negative assessment of the influence of the yoke on the development of Rus', and such “hardening”, from today’s point of view, did not bring any benefit.
List of used literature
1.
Alekseev Yu.G. Liberation of Rus' from the Horde yoke. – L.: Nauka, 1989. – 150 p.
2. Batysh-Kamensky D. N. History of Little Russia. – Kyiv: Chas, 1993. – 398 p.
3. Vernadsky G.V. Mongols and Rus'. – M.: Nauka, 1997. –178 p.
4. Gorskaya N.A. Historical demography of Russia during the era of feudalism. – M.: Knowledge, 1994. – 153 p.
5. Gumilyov L.N. Ancient Rus' and the Great Steppe. – M.: Mysl, 1993. – 252 p.
6. Egorov V.L. Golden Horde: myths and reality. – M.: Knowledge, 1990. – 315 p.
7. Karamzin N.M. History of the Russian State: Book. 2. – M, 1994. – 200 p.
8. Kargalov V.V. The end of the Horde yoke. – M.: Nauka, 1980. – 142 p.
9. Nosovsky G.V., Fomenko A.T. New chronology and concept of ancient Rus', England and Rome: Vol.1. – M.: Publishing house. Department of UC DO MSU, 1996. – 215 p.
10. Fedorov-Davydov G. A. Social structure of the Golden Horde. – M.: Progress, 1987. – 130 p.
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