According to Pliny and Tacitus, on the lands lying to the east of the Germans, the tribes of the Wends lived. Initially, this name referred to the Italo-Celtic group, then spread to other peoples, among which were the Proto-Slavs. In the 1st century AD Rugs, Goths and Gepids penetrated into the region of the Wends. From the 2nd century the Proto-Slavic tribes and the Slavized Wends constitute a single historical and cultural region. From the 3rd century with the emergence of territorial tribal unions, 3 ethnic language groups became isolated: Pomeranian-Polabian (the Baltic coast and the lower Elbe basin), Polish (the Vistula and Oder basins) and Czech-Moravian (the basin of the upper Elbe, Vltava, upper Oder and the northern tributary of the Danube Morava), those. the territory from the Oder to the Vistula and from the southern sea coast of the Baltic to the Balkans. In the VI century. Slavic tribes moved west and in the second half of the VI century. reached the Elbe. Byzantine writers call numerous tribes of Slavs (Slavs) in the Danube regions. Moreover, in the indicated territory (Pannonia, Moravia, up to Provence (raids were made), the Slavs and Germans were in contact. The main occupation in the VI-VIII centuries among the Slavs was agriculture, along with cattle breeding. They sowed millet, barley, wheat, rye, knew garden and industrial crops. The Slavs used arable tools with iron working parts, as well as sickles, scythes, axes for clearing forests. Livestock - draft power. Even before the resettlement, the Slavs mastered not only slash-and-burn, but also arable agriculture. At this time they were in close contact with the provincial Greco-Roman culture.Since the time of the settlement of the Slavs in new lands, the pace of their social development has become more diverse depending on specific historical conditions.The emerging western branch of the Slavs came into contact with the Germans, who were at a similar stage of development, and fragments of the Celtic tribes , assimilating their remnants to the west and southwest of the Odra.

In the Balkans, the Slavs, having settled most densely in the northern part of the peninsula, in the regions of Epirus, Cf. Greece and the Peloponnese, interacted with the remnants of the Thracians, most of whom were Romanized (north of the Balkan Range) and Hellenized (south of it), with the descendants of the Illyrians (ancestors of the Albanians), with the Romanesque population of Dalmatian cities and Greeks. Less intense were the contacts of the Slavs with the surviving Romanesque population of the former provinces of the empire - Norica and Pannonia, where later the Slovenes, partly Moravans and Slovaks, Croats took shape.

State of Samo. From the beginning of the 7th century on the basis of class formation and under the influence of a military threat, during the wars with the Avars, Franks and other Germanic tribes, the first Slavic state formations arose in the basin of the upper Laba and the northern Danube regions. The ethnic core of this statehood was the Czech tribes, Slovenes, Polabian Serbs. The Slavic peoples united under the rule of their prince Samo (623-658). In the middle of the 7th century the center of the principality was in the vicinity of Bratislava. Prince Samo successfully fought against the Avars. The trade rivalry between the Slavs and the Franks led to Samo's war with Dagobert. The embassy of the Frankish king was not accepted by Samo, and even when the Frankish envoys appeared before the prince in Slavic clothes, he did not agree to yield to the Franks in anything. After that, the Franks, in alliance with the Alemanni and the Lombards, again invaded the principality and began to rob. In the battle near the fortress of Vogatisburg, which lasted three days, Dagobert's army was defeated, the camp was captured by the Slavic prince. Samo's campaigns in Thuringia yielded the same rich booty. But the principality turned out to be fragile and fell apart after the death of the prince. In the 7th century the Western Slavs had a large number of fortified political centers, the South Moravian plain became the core of early medieval statehood. The fortress in Mikulčice with a wooden palisade, built in the 7th century, was the residence of the prince and his retinue. But throughout the territory of Moravia, about 30 fortified centers and cities were discovered: Nitra, Bratislava, Vyshegrad, Novograd, Olomouc, Hradiste, etc. Plums, grapes were grown here, they were engaged in pig breeding, sheep breeding, and horse breeding. Game and fish were born. Ores, salt, and minerals were mined in the mountainous regions (Slovak ore mountains). Blacksmithing, craft, shipbuilding are developed. In the VII-IX centuries. Slavic castles served as fortresses and the administrative-territorial center of communal settlements. Such territorial communities (zhups) united under the rule of princes. The fortified estates of the landowning nobility (Lekhs, Zhupans) are concentrated in the castles, residences of princes.

Ì At the end of the VIII-beginning of the IX centuries. in the territory north of the Danube, a Slavic state was formed, which contemporaries called Great Moravian Power.

In 791, the Moravian Slavs took part in the campaign of Charlemagne against the Avars as allies. Great Moravia developed on the territory of the Morava river basin, the upper Laba and the upper Oder, bordered on Bavaria, Bulgaria and Horutania, with the Vistula state of the Polish Slavs. The state included the lands of the Czechs, Moravians, Slovenes, Lusatian Serbs, Polabian and Polish Slavs. The border of two principalities passed along the Danube: Prince Mojmir ruled in one, and Pribin (the center of Nitra) ruled in the other. Around 833, Mojmir occupied the lands of the Principality of Nitra and expelled Pribin from there. In 831 Mojmir was baptized. The Great Moravian Principality was strengthened under Mojmir (816-846), his squad drove away the Franks. The German feudal lords contributed to the fact that Mojmir was overthrown from the throne, and his nephew Rostislav (846-870) seized power. Under him, the power of Moravia increased. The capital is Velegrad. Moravia traded with Byzantium and Russia. To avoid the penetration of Catholicism, Prince Rostislav in 862 invited Christian preachers from Byzantium, the Christian mission was headed by brothers (Konstantin and Methodius. Constantine (Cyril) - a student of Patriarch Photius, knew Greek, Arabic, ancient Eastern (Jewish), rhetoric, literature. Had nickname "philosopher". He introduced Slavic sounds into the alphabet - w, s, c, sh, sh, s. In 871, Methodius introduced Slavic worship in the Czech Republic, baptized Prince Borivoi and his wife Lyudmila.) Under Prince Svyatopolk (870-894 ) the onslaught of German feudal lords on Great Moravia is intensifying. Svyatopolk spent several years in Germany, at which time Slavomir led the uprising of the Moravians against the dominance of the German counts who ruled in some areas of Great Moravia. In 874 the German king recognized the independence of Svyatopolk. The latter could pursue an independent policy and expanded the boundaries of the Great Moravian state, including the Czech Republic, the lands of the Polabian Serbs, the Slavs on the Oder, and the Principality of the Vistula. In the southeast, he pressed the Bulgarians and seized the lands between the Danube and the Tisza.

At the end of the 9th century, due to the pressure of the German princes, the Catholic Church increased its influence, this became especially pronounced after the death of Methodius in 885. The beginning civil strife and external danger from the Hungarians intensified the split in the country.

Ì From the Great Moravian Principality separated Czech principalities, the genus becomes influential Przemyslovichi who reigned in Prague. The Czech princes Boriva (Borzhivoy) and his wife adopted Christianity from Methodius and founded the church of St. Mary in Prague. The legend says: at the feast at Svyatopolk Borzhyva was not allowed to sit at the table among Christians, and he, like a pagan, settled down on the floor. At the same time, Methodius noticed that such a prince should not occupy such a place and offered to be baptized. The next day, Borzhivoy and 30 of his warriors were baptized. In the ninth century Levy Hradec on the Vltava became the ecclesiastical center of the principality of the Przemyslovichi; later Christianity spread in the Czech Republic in two forms - Slavic and Latin.

The second major Czech principality was Zlichanskoe(center - Libice), where the Slavnikovichi reigned. The Czech princes Boleslav I (935-967) and Boleslav II (967-999) crushed the resistance of individual governors and princes who did not want to recognize their supreme power. Boleslav II subjugated the most stubborn prince of the Slavnikov family, ravaged his capital, Libice, and annexed all the lands subject to him to the Czech Principality. The victory over the Hungarians by the German emperor Otto I with the help of the army of Boleslav I in the battle of Lech in 955 created the conditions for the expansion of the power of the Czech princes to the Slavic lands lying east of the Czech Republic. Moravia, some adjacent lands in the upper reaches of the Odra and the region of Krakow were annexed to the Czech Republic. In the second half of the X century. there was a political rapprochement between the Czech Republic and Rus'. In 992 Czech ambassadors visited Kyiv.

Ì Union Polish lands originally took place around several centers. The Polish tribes mentioned in the sources - Polans, Kuyavlyans, Mazovshans, Lenchitsans, Vislyans, Pomeranians, Slenzans, etc. are associations associated with a certain territory and arose on the basis of pre-existing tribal unions. In the middle of the ninth century the unification of tribes or tribal principalities began. Initially, there was an unification around two main centers - the Principality of the Wislanians in Lesser Poland and the Principality of the Polans in Greater Poland. After the conquest of the Principality of the Wislanians by the Great Moravian Empire (877), Greater Poland became the center of the formation of the state. In the second half of the X century. after the struggle between the principalities, the process of creating the ancient Polish state was suspended. Its first reliable prince was Mieszko I (960-992) from the Piast family. In 966, Mieszko and his associates converted to Catholicism. The ancient Polish state reached its heyday under the son of Mieszko I - Boleslav I the Brave (992-1025). Under him, the process of land unification was completed - the Krakow land was annexed, and public administration- local government was based on a system of towns, headed by rulers - comeses (later castellans), who had judicial, fiscal, military functions. Under the prince there was a council of nobility. Under Bolesław I in 1000 in Gniezno, at a meeting with the German emperor Otto III, it was agreed that an independent Gniezno archbishopric would be created in Poland. Relations with the German Empire escalated in 1002, the war (1003-1018) was ended by the Budishinsky peace, according to which Lusatia and Milsko were ceded to Poland. In 1025 the Polish princes became king. Poland's international relations with Russia, the Czech Republic, and Hungary were notable for their complexity. So, in 1021, the Czech Republic conquered Moravia, captured by Boleslav. Under the son of Boleslav Mieszko II (1025-1034), the German emperor attacked Poland, and the Czech Republic and Rus' also opposed Poland. Poland lost all the lands annexed by Bolesław. In 1037 -1039. an anti-feudal uprising took place that swept most of the country. The German feudal lords helped to suppress it. The son of Mieszko II, Casimir, became king, but in 1039 Poland became a vassal of Germany.

Southern Slavs. By the middle of the 7th century Slavs occupied a significant part of the Balkan Peninsula and a number of regions adjacent to it in the northwest. With the exception of Thrace, Attica, some areas near large Byzantine cities and the south of the Peloponnese, where the Greek population continued to live, the Slavs occupied the entire Balkan Peninsula. Occupations - agriculture, gardening, viticulture, in the south - olive growing, cattle breeding (especially in Bosnia, Old Serbia, northern Macedonia), beekeeping, crafts. The economy was conducted either by large families - zadrugs, or individual families. In Western Macedonia in the 7th century. a completely independent Slavic principality was formed - sclavinia, which retained its independence from Byzantium until the 9th century. The sources refer to it as the "Union of the Seven Slavic Tribes".

The most famous South Slavic state - Bulgarian kingdom. The basis was the "Union of Seven Slavic Tribes" (in Lower Moesia) and the Turkic tribe of the Bulgarians (Proto-Bulgarians). Pressed by the Avars, in the 70s. 7th century the Proto-Bulgarians approached the lands of the Danubian Slavs and occupied the then sparsely populated northern part of Scythia Minor (the area of ​​modern Dobruja), which nominally belonged to Byzantium. The threat from Byzantium led to the rapprochement of the Slavs and Bulgarians. In 681 they defeated the Byzantines. The Slavs assimilated the Bulgarians, adopting the ethnonym of the latter. Thus, the Bulgarian kingdom of Khan Asparuh appeared. The social structure - nobility - boyars, peasants - wigs, the state experienced a great influence of Byzantium. By the beginning of the X century. all the robes (slaves) turned into youths (serfs). Economy - it is known that there were three fields, viticulture, sericulture, crafts. Known cities are Ohrid, M. Preslava, Sredets (Sofia), Skopje, Varna, the capital is Vel. Preslav. Under the prince there was a council of nobility - the great boyars. Under Khan Krum (802-814), laws appeared - "The law of judgment for people." A new procedure for investigating court cases was established - a person who failed to prove his accusation was subject to the death penalty as a liar and slanderer. There were severe penalties for theft and concealment of stolen goods. Under Krum, there was an active foreign policy . In 805, Krum, taking advantage of the defeat of the Avar Khaganate by Charlemagne, invaded the eastern possessions of the Avars, seized the treasures of the Avar Khagan and annexed the lands up to the river to his state. Yews. (there were salt mines). In 809 Krum occupied Serdika (Sredets, Sofia), and in 811 Nikephoros I invaded Bulgaria and captured Pliska. Krum gathered an army and guarded Nikifor in the mountain gorge. July 26, 811 Nicephorus, according to legend, said: "We will be saved only if we grow wings." The Byzantines were killed (they drowned in the swamp and in the river. Nicephorus himself died in battle, Krum made a banquet bowl from his skull). Then Krum invaded Thrace, approached Constantinople, and died during the siege of the city (April 13, 814). Under Omortag (814-831), Pliska was rebuilt, and the second capital, Preslav, was founded. Under Boris (852-889), Christianity was adopted in 862. At the end of the IX - X centuries. a series of wars with Byzantium begins, they were fought with varying success, but on the whole successfully for Bulgaria. Under Tsar Simeon (893-927) (he proclaimed himself king in 919, the Bulgarian church was also declared independent from Byzantium) the borders of the state were expanded. At the head of the state was a monarch (khan, then Caesar, basileus, king), his power was hereditary (either to a brother or to a son). Under the tsar there was a council of the nobility - a synod. Administratively, the country was divided into regions ruled by kmets (kmet = komit). The support of power is the army, but not the people's organization, but the retinue of the feudal lords. In the X century. Bulgaria's prestige as an international power was high. The ambassadors of Bulgaria at the imperial table were seated higher than the ambassadors of the German emperor Otto I. The peasants paid the state. taxes - voloberschinu - land, dymninu - household, as well as from livestock, from bees, etc. In the X century. Bogomil movement (dualism) appeared in Bulgaria. In Bulgaria, centrifugal movements and the independence of the boyars began to intensify. Under Tsar Peter (927-969), the region along the upper reaches of the river fell away. Struma, and Macedonia. Byzantium began to wage war against Bulgaria. (In 968, Svyatoslav's campaign on the Danube). In 972, John Tzimiskes captured the Eastern Bulgarian regions. Western Bulgaria retained political independence. In terms of its socio-economic development, Western Bulgaria lagged behind Eastern Bulgaria. From the end of the X century. Byzantium's systematic offensive against Bulgaria begins. In 1014, a decisive battle took place near Mount Belasitsa, where Samuil was defeated. The king himself barely escaped, and all the captured Bulgarians were blinded, one guide was left for every 100, and were sent to Samuil. Therefore, Basil the Emperor received the nickname Bulgar-Slayers. Byzantium finally subjugated Bulgaria in 1018. Vasily the Bulgar-Slayer. In Eastern Bulgaria, Byzantium did not impose the system of its administration. Western Bulgaria completely entered the sphere of Byzantine administration. A catepanism was created here, headed by a catepan (duka) (David Arpanit - the first ruler). Then the title of catepan was replaced by the title of autocrator strategist. On the conquered lands of the former Bulgarian state, the Byzantines created several themes: 1. the theme of Bulgaria; 2. the theme of the "Danubian cities" (Paristrion); 3. theme to the west of the last along the Danube and Savva rivers with the cities of Sirmium and Belgrade; then new areas were created, which were divided into turma. Serbs and Croats also recognized vassalage from Byzantium. In the XI century. begins the attack of the Pechenegs, the Normans (Robert Guiscard) on Bulgaria. In 1185, the position of Byzantium became more complicated, and a liberation movement began in northeastern Bulgaria. In 1186, Peter (Fyodor) and Asen, the boyars from Tyrnov, headed it. In 1187 Isaac II recognized the independence of Bulgaria. Thus, the Second Bulgarian Kingdom appeared.

Ì In the upper reaches of the Savva and Drava, to the west of Pannonia in the 5th-6th centuries. ancestors lived Slovenes - Horutans. The principality of Khorutan bordered on the Bavarian and Lombard kingdoms, the Avar Khaganate. Constant wars forced the Horutans to unite with the Slovenes. In the 7th century these Slavic lands became part of the Eastern and Friulian marks of the Frankish Empire. The Horutans fought for independence. Periodically rebelling, and uniting with the Slovenes, for example, under Prince Ljudevit. In the middle of the ninth century the Croatian principality was formed under the rule of the great zhupan Trpimir (845-864). At the beginning of the X century. Croatian prince received the title of King of Croatia and Dalmatia. (925 Prince Tomislav).

The first state formations Serbs originated in the ninth century. - in Raska, Dukla, (since the 11th century - in Zeta), Travuniya, Hum. Zhupans Rashki recognized the supremacy of Bulgaria, and in 931 Zhupan Cheslav freed himself from Bulgarian domination. He subjugated Dukla, part of Bosnia, Travuniya. This state collapsed at the end of the 10th century. Serbian lands became part of the Western Bulgarian state. After its conquest by Byzantium, the Serbs became vassals of the empire. In 1035, Zeta freed herself from Byzantine dependence. Under the great Zhupan Stefan Neman (1167-1196), Raska was freed from Byzantium. Neman subjugated Zeta, Travuniya, Hum. Nemanya's son Stefan the First-crowned became a kraal. Part of the lands of the Catholic, part of the Orthodox religion adhered to.

At the end of the 8th century and in the ninth century. the rise of cities Dalmatia - Zadar, Sibenik, Split, Dubrovnik, Koto, Bar. Dubrovnik is a commercial rival to Venice. The Council of Venice decided: "Every Friday to talk about the means of destroying Dubrovnik." The administrative structure of cities is similar to Italian. The population is nobles, popular. At the end of the IX-X centuries. part of the cities recognized the power of Croatia, and the South Dalmatian cities were part of the Byzantine theme of Dalmatia. But at the end of the X-beginning of the XI centuries. the cities came under the protectorate of Venice, in 1205 Dubrovnik also came under her hand.

Western Slavs in the 7th–11th centuries

Formation of Slavic states in Western Europe

The Slavs have never lived in the sphere of any single Slavic culture, in a long-term common historical and cultural atmosphere.

Macurek. Obrysy Slovanstv. Prague, 1948

Slavs VI–VII centuries. Slavs in the VI-VII centuries. occupied the largest area in Western Europe. From the Elbe in the west to the Vistula basin in the east, from the southern shores of the Baltic Sea in the north to the Danube in the south, lived numerous tribes of the so-called western branch of the Slavs. The Western Slavs were divided into three groups: Czech-Moravian, Polish-Vislanian and Polabian-Baltic Slavs.

Western Slavs in the 7th-9th centuries.

Experiencing the stage of decomposition of the tribal system, the Western Slavs in the period of the 7th-9th centuries. formed their tribal unions, which were one of the forms of the emerging state. In the X-XI centuries. in connection with the process of feudalization, the Slavs already had states of the early feudal type. In addition to internal conditions - the formation of the ruling class of landowners-feudal lords and the class of personally dependent community members-peasants, great importance As an accelerating moment in the formation of the West Slavic states, the intense struggle of the Slavic tribes with neighboring peoples, who sought to conquer and enslave them, had. The struggle against the Avars, Franks, Hungarians, and especially the German feudal lords forced the Slavs to create their own state unions, sometimes reaching very significant territorial dimensions.

State of Samo

The earliest Western Slavic state, information about which has come down to us from chronicle sources, was the union of the tribes of Bohemia (or Czech Republic), which existed in the middle of the 7th century. This union was formed in the course of the struggle of the Slavs against the Avars (in the Russian chronicles they are called "obras"). Avars - the people of the Turkic language group - came to the Danube in the second half of the 6th century. At the end of VI - beginning of VII century. they subjugated a number of Slavic tribes, imposing tribute on them and turning many into slavery. The Slavs rebelled against the domination of the Avars, freed themselves from them and formed a rather large military-tribal union. At the head of this political union was Samo. Fredegar, the author of the Frankish chronicle, calls Samo a Frankish merchant who traded with the Slavs, and then became their military leader. In addition to the Czech Slavs, Samo's union also included south slavs(Slovenes) and Polabian Slavs - Serbs. Thus, the union of Slavic tribes was quite large, although it is difficult to determine the exact boundaries of the "State of Samo". Samo ruled for 35 years (623–658). When he died, the alliance of the tribes fell apart. By this time, the Avars no longer posed such a terrible danger to other peoples.

Pannonia, or the Principality of Blaten

The fall of the Avar Khaganate led to a significant change in the situation in Central Europe. The main factor determining its political life is the struggle between the Germans and the Slavs. With the liberation of the Middle Danube from the rule of the Avars, the process of consolidation of the Slavic tribes begins here again.

The intervention of the German feudal lords in the affairs of the Slavs influenced the process of unification of the Slavic tribes of Moravia that was taking place at that time in the northern part of the Middle Danube. Fearing the strengthening of the power of the Moravian prince Mojmir, the German feudal lords entered into an alliance with his rival, the prince of the Nitra region, Pribina. In turn, Pribina supported the missionary activities of the German clergy and actively interfered with the unification policy of Mojmir. However, around 833, Mojmir managed to expel Pribina from the Nitra region and annex it to his possessions. Thus, in the northern part of the Middle Danube, a large political union of the Slavs arose, which, since Moravia was its center, entered the historical literature under the name of the Great Moravian Empire. In 846, Louis the German invaded Moravia and elevated Rostislav to the princely throne, hoping to turn him into his obedient tool.

Following that, in opposition to the Great Moravian Principality, Louis the German appointed Prince Pribina Margrave of Lower Pannonia, who, after being expelled from the Nitra region, settled in the vicinity of Lake Balaton. The possessions of Pribina, known in the historical literature under the name of the Pannonian or Blaten Principality, stretched from the Danube to the Mura and from the lower reaches of the Rab to the Drava. Pribina was a faithful conductor of the policy of the East Frankish king. He actively promoted the settlement of German feudal lords on the territory of his principality.

Pribin also zealously supported the German clergy, who received considerable support in a number of newly founded churches. The capital of his principality - the "City on the Swamps" - became the permanent residence of a special Salzburg archpriest.

With the “finding of a homeland” by the Magyars, the Blaten principality came under their rule, and the local population gradually became Hungarians, leaving the family of Slavic peoples.

Great Moravian State

More durable, which existed for a whole century, was another union of the Western Slavs, which also developed on the territory of the future Czech Republic. It included various Czech tribes. This time, its main core was not the Czechs themselves, but the Moravians related to them. The founder of this so-called Great Moravian Union of States was Prince Mojmir (818–846), his successors were Princes Rostislav (846–870) and Svyatopolk (870–894). All of them waged a stubborn struggle with the German feudal lords. The Great Moravian state reached its heyday under Rostislav and Svyatopolk. The capital of the principality was the city of Velegrad. In addition to the Moravian and Czech tribes, it included Serbs and some other Polabian (Upper and partly Middle Elbian) Slavs, part of the Polish tribes, the Slavs of Pannonia, Slovakia and later Galicia.

Rostislav called on the missionaries Constantine the Philosopher (after accepting monasticism in 869 - Cyril) and Methodius to preach Christianity in the Slavic language.

Cyril and Methodius translated liturgical books into Slavonic. Arriving in Moravia in 863, Cyril and Methodius were initially successful. Rostislav provided them with all kinds of assistance. Several thousand Moravians and Czechs were baptized by Greek brothers. Of the baptized Moravians, many learned to read and write and became priests, assistants to Cyril and Methodius. Thus, in Moravia, it was planned to form an independent Slavic church without German mediation. However, very soon Cyril and Methodius encountered great difficulties.

The Catholic German clergy tried in every possible way to interfere with their activities, turning to the pope with complaints.

Cyril and Methodius were forced to go to Rome to give explanations. Cyril died there (869), Methodius managed to get permission from the pope to continue preaching among the Moravians, and he was even appointed archbishop of Moravia by the pope. However, the political situation in the Moravian state at that time remained very complex and controversial.

In 870, Prince Rostislav was overthrown by his nephew Svyatopolk with the support of the Germans. But soon they decided to get rid of Svyatopolk. He was accused of treason, deposed and taken to Germany. The whole of Moravia was occupied by the Germans, and two German counts were appointed to govern it. But the Slavs, who were part of the Moravian Union, in 871 rebelled against German dominance. Slavomir, one of the disciples of Cyril and Methodius, became their leader. The German feudal lords tried to use the same Svyatopolk to suppress the uprising. But the latter, at first pretending to agree to assist them, went over to the side of his fellow tribesmen.

In the end, the German king (Louis the German) made concessions, and in 874 he concluded an agreement with Svyatopolk, recognizing him as an independent prince of Moravia. In the future, Svyatopolk managed to significantly expand the borders of the Moravian state, to subjugate the Slavs who lived along the Laba, Oder, and in the Carpathians to his power. Svyatopolk managed to free himself from German control and did not justify the hopes of the Germans that he would become their obedient tool. But he still had to make some concessions to the German feudal lords. One of them was the prohibition of worship in the Slavic language. After the death of Methodius (in 885), his disciples were expelled from Moravia. They retired to Bulgaria, where they also contributed to the formation of the national Slavic-Bulgarian church and the development of early Slavic-Bulgarian writing.

After the death of Svyatopolk of Moravia, his sons began strife with each other, which quickly weakened the principality. But main reason The death of the Great Moravian state was the appearance at the end of the 9th century. on the Middle Danube, the Hungarians, who in 906 terribly devastated the Moravian state. The defeat of Moravia by the Hungarians led to the disintegration of the Moravian Union, which lasted more than 70 years.

Formation of the Czech State

From a part of the Great Moravian state arose by the beginning of the 10th century. Czech principality. Bohemian princes, still dependent on the Moravian princes, already existed in the 9th century. Thus, Prince Borivoi (874–879) and his wife, Princess Lyudmila, are mentioned among those who received baptism from Bishop Methodius.

At the end of the ninth century in the Czech Republic for some time there were two tribal unions: proper Czech in the northwest with a center in Prague, and Zlichansky in the southeast with a center in the city of Libice. The northwestern Czech union of tribes won. Princes of the Przemysl family (to which Borivoy also belonged) during the 10th and 11th centuries. they had to wage a fierce struggle with the tribal nobility, that is, with the Poles. This struggle with the Poles was especially tense under the princes Boleslav I the Terrible (936-967) and Boleslav II (967-999). As a result of this struggle, an entire clan was exterminated - the Lech Slavnikovichi, who led the union of the Zlichan tribes; the city of Libice was destroyed (996).

In 1041, under Prince Břetislav I (1034–1055), vassal relations between the Czech prince and the German Empire were established. The struggle of the princes with the nobility made it possible for the empire to interfere in the internal affairs of the Czech Republic. However, the German emperors, for their part, also needed an alliance with the strengthened Czech prince. Therefore, he occupied a special position among the other dukes of Germany. In 1086, Emperor Henry IV gave Prince Bratislav II (1061–1092) the royal title.

The Czech Republic became a kingdom, while continuing to remain in the system of the empire. By this time, the old Leh nobility was completely crushed. Its place was taken by a new land servant nobility, closely connected with the royal power and by this time already subjected to significant feudalization. Medieval Czech State located in the very center Western Europe, developed very intensively in the following centuries. However, with the growth and formation of the Czech nationality, its inevitable contradictions with German influence, which followed from the fact of the political dependence of the Czech Republic on Germany, should have been revealed.

Formation of the Polish state

Simultaneously with the Czech, another West Slavic state was formed - Polish. Initially, it was a union of several tribes located in the Vistula basin: Polyans (which gave the name to the new state), Slezans (or Silesians), Kuyavs, Mazurs (or Mazovshan), etc. The first Polish prince was Mieszko (Mechislav) from the Piast family. Mieszko ruled 960–992. as prince of Greater Poland, parts of Silesia, Mazovia and Kuyavia.

Western Slavs in the X-XI centuries.

In 966, Mieszko was baptized along with his retinue according to the Western rite. Poland thus became a Catholic country. Mieszko's son and successor, Bolesław I the Brave (992-1025), was a strong prince with a large retinue (up to 20,000 people). Under Boleslaw, Lesser Poland with Krakow, as well as all of Silesia, became part of the Polish state. Boleslav conquered the Pomeranian Slavs (who lived on the shores of the Baltic Sea), part of the Polabian Slavs (Luzhitans) and captured the cities of Cherven (in modern Western Ukraine). The Czech Republic and Moravia also depended on him for some time. In 1025, Bolesław assumed the title of king and established the Archbishopric of Gniezno, thus freeing the Polish Church from subordination to the Archbishop of Magdeburg. However, after the death of Boleslav, most of the lands conquered by him fell out of obedience. In connection with the process of feudalization, the country was divided into many princely destinies. Feudal fragmentation in Poland acquired a very striking character. Nevertheless, the Polish state covered a significant territory. Numerous tribes that were part of the original Polish Union gradually merged into a single Polish people. The Polish state throughout the Middle Ages existed as an independent state, without any vassal relations with the German Empire.

During the X-XI centuries. Attempts to form a state were also noticeable among the Western - Polabian and Baltic - Slavs. However, these attempts did not lead to the creation of any strong state associations. This was prevented by German aggression, which overtook these tribes at the stage of the simplest military-tribal alliances. Of these attempts, it is necessary to note the political alliances of the Pomeranian Slavs, who had to wage a stubborn struggle with the Germans, Danes, and Scandinavians. On this basis, in the X century. strong princely power developed among the Eastern Pomeranians. One German chronicle says that the chief East Pomeranian prince had 40,000 troops.

In Eastern Pomerania there were significant trading cities, which were also fortresses - Kolobreg, Belgard, Gdansk. In the XI century. Eastern Pomeranians were subject to Poland, under whose rule they were almost until the middle of the 13th century.

Western Pomeranians in the X-XI centuries. formed a union like a city federation. It included the cities of Volyn, Szczecin, Kamen and others. Power in them belonged to the urban aristocracy - the "city elders" from local merchants, landowners, part of the slave owners, who also controlled the local princes, who played a purely military role. Veches existed in the Western Pomeranian cities, but the urban aristocracy had a great influence on them too. In some ways, the political structure of the West Pomeranian cities resembled the system of the northern Russian cities - Novgorod and Pskov.

The strongest among the Polabian Slavs was the Vendian kingdom. Its basis was the union of Obodrites, who lived on the right bank of the Lower Elbe. Back in the X century. strong Obodrite princes Mstivoy, Mstislav and others are known, whom the German chronicles call the kings of the Slavs (regesslavorum). In the XI century. a whole dynasty of obodrite princes arose in the person of Gottschalk (1030–1066), Steep (1066–1093) and King Henry, son of Gottschalk (1093–1125). Henry was officially called the king of the Wends. Apart from Obodrites, a significant part of the Lyutichs also obeyed him.

The Obodrite princes waged a stubborn struggle against the tribal nobility, relying on squads of knights. To strengthen their power, they entered into an alliance with the German feudal lords. To this end, Gottschalk converted to Christianity according to the Catholic rite. However, Christianity aroused serious opposition against itself in the country. Prince Krutoy overthrew Gottschalk, relying on the old "pagan party". Gottschalk's son Heinrich, who succeeded Krutoy, also followed his father's pro-German and Christian congestion policies. However, rapprochement with the Germans, in particular with the German catholic church, did not help the Vendian kings to maintain their independence. In the 12th century, with the resumption of the German "onslaught to the east", the lands of the Obodrites were among the first to be conquered and enslaved by the German feudal lords. On the territory of the Obodrites, a large German feudal duchy of Mecklenburg was formed, which became an outpost for the further advance of Germany into the lands of the Western Slavs.

History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich

Formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs

The emergence of the state is a natural stage in the development of society. This is a very long process, so any event that marks the transition to state forms of people's life is very conditional.

Primitive society could exist, guided by two basic principles that regulated social life: custom (tradition) and the right of the strong. These principles were sufficient as long as the kindred did not differ too much from each other in their interests and aspirations. Age-old traditions were rarely challenged, so there was no need for some special mechanism to ensure their observance, i.e. in the state.

However primitive society gradually changed, relations between relatives became more and more diverse, and the life of the clan became less and less closed. We have already mentioned the disintegration of the tribal community and the transition to a neighboring community among the Eastern Slavs. The interests of an individual family no longer always coincided with common interests, which destroyed the clan from the inside. There was a need to create new, more complex rules (gradually taking the form of legal norms and laws) and enforce them. Property inequality, inequality of opportunities appeared, as not only the economic basis of people's lives improved, but the sources from which people drew their livelihoods became more diverse. For example, in the life of the family, spoils of war began to play an increasingly important role. These factors influenced the emergence of property inequality between people, which was enshrined in the right of private property.

Of course, it would be wrong to deny the economic factor in the emergence of the state (the growth of labor productivity, the emergence of surpluses, inequality, etc.), but it is also impossible to reduce everything only to the economic activity of people.

The state arises when the majority of members of society have a need to limit tribal power (the patriarchal power of the elders, based on tradition and their own moral authority). At first, the main functions state power there was a court and war (protection of the community members engaged in productive labor, who took up arms only in case of a particularly serious threat; ensuring the security of trade relations; predatory raids on neighbors).

The emergence of Kievan Rus chronologically fits into the process of state formation, which took place in the 9th-10th centuries. in Northern, Central and Eastern Europe. In the first half of the ninth century the Great Moravian principality was formed, at the turn of the 9th–10th centuries. - Czech. In the middle of the ninth century there was an unification of Polish tribes, and in the second half of the 10th century. The Old Polish state was created. In the ninth century statehood was established in Croatia and Serbian lands. 9th century - the time of the appearance of the united Anglo-Saxon kingdom, and the tenth century. - Danish.

In the VIII-IX centuries. among the Eastern Slavs, the tribal way of life was thoroughly destroyed and was not a serious obstacle to the emergence of the state. Neighboring communities could no longer be governed on the basis of the old tribal customs. All this required the creation of new rules, new norms of the hostel.

Neighboring communities and individual family yards were too weak to provide their own security. The natural guarantor of security was the prince, who had a squad and a fortified point (city). The agricultural communities gradually came under the patronage of the prince and his retinue. In the ninth century continued gradual strengthening of princely power. This process was accelerated under the influence of external factors: in the north of the East European Plain, raids by the Varangians became a constant phenomenon, in the south, the enmity between the Slavic and Turkic tribes escalated.

In historical science, a dispute arose a long time ago about the formation of statehood among the Slavs. For many years enjoyed great prestige Norman theory, in which the role of Scandinavian warriors in the formation of East Slavic statehood was exaggerated. It is also wrong to downplay the role of the Varangians in the political processes that took place in Slavic society, since extreme anti-Normanism conflicts with the facts known to us. It can be said that the state of the Eastern Slavs was formed not thanks to the Scandinavians, but with their participation.

In The Tale of Bygone Years, the chronicler reports that in 862 Novgorod elder Gostomysl, being childless, before his death invited the Norman prince Rurik with his retinue to Novgorod. Rurik, having killed the noble Novgorodians, settled in the city and began to rule. After his death, the leader of one of the Varangian detachments, Oleg, seized power. IN 882 Oleg undertook a campaign against Kyiv. He managed by cunning to lure the Varangians Askold and Dir from Kyiv, which they had previously captured, and killed them. The capture of Kyiv made it possible to politically unite the territories located along the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Oleg, who made Kyiv his capital city, continued to rule over the Novgorodians.

The unification of most of the East Slavic tribes around Kyiv was not very strong and not very burdensome. The power of the Kyiv prince was reduced to collecting tribute (polyudyu) and inter-tribal disputes and litigation.

After the death of Oleg, the son of Rurik, Igor, began to reign in Kyiv. At the same time, the prince 945 the first uprising of the Drevlyans took place. The insatiability of Prince Igor during the collection of tribute outraged the Drevlyans - they killed the squad, and the prince was executed. Igor's wife Olga, having avenged the Drevlyans for the murder of her husband, was nevertheless forced to streamline the collection of tribute, establishing lessons(tribute amount) and churchyards(gathering places).

So gradually, under the rule of Kyiv (around the Polyan tribe), a folding took place Old Russian state- Kievan Rus. It was an early feudal state, as it retained the remnants of the tribal system: elements of military democracy (the relationship between the prince and the squad, the militia), the existence of the veche in various cities and tribal associations, blood feud.

At the head of the state was the Grand Duke of Kiev, under which there was a council of the most noble and powerful princes and boyars. The princely combatants were in charge of collecting tribute, taxes, carried out the court, sorted out petty cases, etc. Special princely representatives (posadniks) were appointed to the cities. In vassal dependence on the prince were his relatives, the princes of specific lands, the boyars, who owned large estates and had their own squad.

There is a gradual strengthening of the power of the Kyiv princes over the tribal unions of the Slavs. The Kiev prince united Slavic and non-Slavic lands both by force and through various agreements. Oleg conquered the Drevlyans by force, Vladimir in the same way attached the Radimichi. By the time of the reign of Svyatoslav, the tribal princes were basically done away with - they became simply posadniks of the Kyiv prince. Prince Vladimir planted his sons in various lands dependent on Kyiv. However, the prince did not reign supreme. The princely power was limited by the elements of the preserved people's self-government. Actively operated in the IX-XI centuries. national assembly - veche.

History claims that the first Slavic states arose in the period dated to the 5th century AD. Around this time, the Slavs migrated to the banks of the Dnieper River. It was here that they split into two historical branches: Eastern and Balkan. The Eastern tribes settled along the Dnieper, and the Balkan tribes occupied the Slavic states in modern world occupy a vast territory in Europe and Asia. The peoples who live in them are becoming less and less similar to each other, but common roots are visible in everything - from traditions and language to such a fashionable term as mentality.

The question of the emergence of statehood among the Slavs has been worrying scientists for many years. Quite a few theories have been put forward, each of which, perhaps, is not devoid of logic. But in order to form an opinion about this, you need to familiarize yourself with at least the main ones.

How states arose among the Slavs: assumptions about the Varangians

If we talk about the history of the emergence of statehood among the ancient Slavs in these territories, then scientists usually rely on several theories, which I would like to consider. The most common version today of when the first Slavic states arose is the Norman or Varangian theory. It originated at the end of the 18th century in Germany. The founders and ideological inspirers were two German scientists: Gottlieb Siegfried Bayer (1694-1738) and Gerhard Friedrich Miller (1705-1783).

In their opinion, the history of the Slavic states has Nordic or Varangian roots. Such a conclusion was made by pundits, having thoroughly studied The Tale of Bygone Years, the oldest opus created by the monk Nestor. There really is a reference, dated 862, to the fact that the ancients (Krivichi, Slovenes and Chud) called for the reign of the Varangian princes to their lands. Allegedly, tired of the endless internecine strife and enemy raids from outside, several Slavic tribes decided to unite under the leadership of the Normans, who at that time were considered the most experienced and successful in Europe.

In the old days, in the formation of any state, the experience of its leadership was a higher priority than economic. And no one doubted the power and experience of the northern barbarians. Their combat units raided almost the entire inhabited part of Europe. Probably, proceeding primarily from military successes, according to the Norman theory, the ancient Slavs decided to invite the Varangian princes to the kingdom.

By the way, the very name - Rus, was allegedly brought by the Norman princes. In Nestor the Chronicler, this moment is quite clearly expressed in the line "... and three brothers got out with their families, and took all of Rus' with them." However, the last word in this context, according to many historians, rather means a combat squad, in other words, professional military men. It is also worth noting here that among the Norman leaders, as a rule, there was a clear division between the civil clan and the military tribal detachment, which was sometimes called the “kirch”. In other words, it can be assumed that the three princes moved to the lands of the Slavs not only with fighting squads, but also with full-fledged families. Since the family will not be taken on a regular military campaign under any circumstances, the status of this event becomes clear. The Varangian princes took the request of the tribes seriously and founded the early Slavic states.

"Where did the Russian land come from"

Another curious theory says that the very concept of "Varangians" meant in Ancient Rus' precisely the professional military. This once again testifies in favor of the fact that the ancient Slavs relied on the militarized leaders. According to the theory of German scientists, which is based on the chronicle of Nestor, one Varangian prince settled near Lake Ladoga, the second settled on the shores of the White Lake, the third - in the city of Izoborsk. It was after these actions, according to the chronicler, that the early Slavic states were formed, and the lands in the aggregate began to be called the Russian Land.

Further in his chronicle, Nestor retells the legend of the emergence of the subsequent royal family of Rurikovich. It was the Ruriks, the rulers of the Slavic states, who were the descendants of those same legendary three princes. They can also be attributed to the first "political leading elite" of the ancient Slavic states. After the death of the conditional "founding father", power passed to his closest relative Oleg, who, through intrigue and bribery, captured Kyiv, and then united Northern and Southern Rus' into one state. According to Nestor, this happened in 882. As can be seen from the chronicle, the formation of the state was due to the successful "external control" of the Varangians.

Russians - who are they?

However, scientists are still arguing about the real nationality of the people who were so called. Adherents of the Norman theory believe that the very word "Rus" came from the Finnish word "ruotsi", which the Finns called the Swedes in the 9th century. It is also interesting that most of the Russian ambassadors who were in Byzantium had Scandinavian names: Karl, Iengeld, Farlof, Veremund. These names were recorded in agreements with Byzantium dated 911-944. Yes, and the first rulers of Rus' bore exclusively Scandinavian names - Igor, Olga, Rurik.

One of the most serious arguments in favor of the Norman theory about which states are Slavic is the mention of Russians in the Western European Bertin Annals. In particular, it is noted there that in 839 the Byzantine emperor sent an embassy to his Frankish colleague Louis I. The delegation included representatives of the “people of the ros”. The bottom line is that Louis the Pious decided that the "Russians" are the Swedes.

In the year 950, the Byzantine emperor in his book “On the Management of the Empire” noted that some names of the famous Dnieper rapids have exclusively Scandinavian roots. And finally, many Islamic travelers and geographers in their opuses dating back to the 9th-10th centuries clearly separate the “Rus” from the “Sakaliba” Slavs. All these facts, put together, helped German scientists build the so-called Norman theory of how the Slavic states arose.

Patriotic theory of the emergence of the state

The main ideologist of the second theory is the Russian scientist Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov. Slavic theory is also called "autochthonous theory". Studying the Norman theory, Lomonosov saw a flaw in the reasoning of German scientists about the inability of the Slavs to self-organize, which led to external control by Europe. A true patriot of his fatherland, M.V. Lomonosov questioned the whole theory, deciding to study this historical mystery himself. Over time, the so-called Slavic theory of the origin of the state was formed, based on the complete denial of the facts of the "Norman".

So, what are the main counterarguments brought by the defenders of the Slavs? The main argument is the assertion that the very name "Rus" is not etymologically connected with either Ancient Novgorod or Ladoga. It refers, rather, to Ukraine (in particular, the Middle Dnieper). As proof, the ancient names of the reservoirs located in this area are given - Ros, Rusa, Rostavitsa. Studying the Syriac "Church History" translated by Zachary Rhetor, adherents of the Slavic theory found references to a people called Hros or "Rus". These tribes settled a little south of Kyiv. The manuscript was created in 555. In other words, the events that are described in it were long before the arrival of the Scandinavians.

The second serious counterargument is the lack of mention of Rus' in the ancient Scandinavian sagas. Quite a few of them were composed, and, in fact, the entire folklore ethnos of the modern Scandinavian countries is based on them. It is difficult to disagree with the statements of those historians who say that at least in the early time part of the historical sagas there should be minimal coverage of those events. The Scandinavian names of ambassadors, which supporters of the Norman theory rely on, also do not completely determine the nationality of their bearers. According to historians, the Swedish delegates could well represent the Russian princes in the far abroad.

Criticism of the Norman theory

The ideas of the Scandinavians about statehood are also doubtful. The fact is that during the described period, the Scandinavian states as such did not exist. It is this fact that causes a fair amount of skepticism that the Varangians are the first rulers of the Slavic states. It is unlikely that visiting Scandinavian leaders, not understanding the construction of their own power, would arrange something like that in foreign lands.

Academician B. Rybakov, speaking about the origin of the Norman theory, expressed an opinion about the general weak competence of the then historians, who believed, for example, that the transition of several tribes to other lands creates the prerequisites for the development of statehood, and in just a few decades. In fact, the process of formation and formation of statehood can last for centuries. The main historical basis on which German historians rely is full of rather strange inaccuracies.

The Slavic states, according to Nestor the chronicler, were formed over several decades. Often, he equates the founders and the state, replacing these concepts. Experts suggest that such inaccuracies are due to Nestor himself. Therefore, the peremptory interpretation of his chronicle is highly doubtful.

Variety of theories

Another noteworthy theory of the emergence of statehood in ancient Rus' called Iranian-Slavic. According to her, at the time of the formation of the first state, there were two branches of the Slavs. One, which was called Russ-encouraged, or Rug, lived on the lands of the present Baltic. Another settled in the Black Sea region and originated from the Iranian and Slavic tribes. The convergence of these two "varieties" of one people, according to the theory, made it possible to create a single Slavic state of Rus.

An interesting hypothesis, which was later put forward into a theory, was proposed by Academician of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine V. G. Sklyarenko. In his opinion, the Novgorodians turned for help to the Varangians-Balts, who were called Rutens or Russ. The term "rutens" comes from the people of one of the Celtic tribes who took part in the formation of the ethnic group of Slavs on the island of Rügen. In addition, according to the academician, it was during that time period that the Black Sea Slavic tribes already existed, the descendants of which were the Zaporizhzhya Cossacks. This theory was called - Celtic-Slavic.

Finding a compromise

It should be noted that from time to time there are compromise theories of the formation of Slavic statehood. This is the version proposed by the Russian historian V. Klyuchevsky. In his opinion, the Slavic states were the most fortified cities at that time. It was in them that the foundations of trade, industrial and political formations were laid. Moreover, according to the historian, there were entire "urban areas", which were small states.

Second political and state form of that time, those same warlike Varangian principalities appeared, which are mentioned in the Norman theory. According to Klyuchevsky, it was the merger of powerful urban conglomerates and the military formations of the Varangians that led to the formation of Slavic states (the 6th grade of the school calls such a state Kievan Rus). This theory, which was insisted on by Ukrainian historians A. Efimenko and I. Krypyakevich, was called the Slavic-Varangian. She somewhat reconciled the orthodox representatives of both directions.

In turn, academician Vernadsky also doubted the Norman origin of the Slavs. In his opinion, the formation of the Slavic states of the eastern tribes should be considered on the territory of the "Rus" - the modern Kuban. The academician believed that the Slavs received such a name from the ancient name "Roksolany" or bright Alans. In the 60s of the XX century, the Ukrainian archaeologist D.T. Berezovets proposed to consider the Alanian population of the Don region as Rus. Today, this hypothesis is also considered by the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences.

There is no such ethnic group - Slavs

The American professor O. Pritsak proposed a completely different version of which states are Slavic and which are not. It is not based on any of the above hypotheses and has its own logical basis. According to Pritsak, the Slavs as such did not exist at all on ethnic and state lines. The territory in which it was formed Kievan Rus, was a crossroads of trade and commercial routes between East and West. The people who inhabited these places were a kind of warrior-merchants who ensured the safety of trade caravans of other merchants, and also equipped their carts on the way.

In other words, the history of the Slavic states is based on a certain trade and military community of interests of representatives different peoples. It was the synthesis of nomads and sea robbers that later formed the ethnic basis of the future state. A rather controversial theory, especially considering that the scientist who put forward it lived in a state whose history is hardly 200 years old.

Many Russian and Ukrainian historians came out against it with sharp criticism, who were jarred even by the very name - “Volga-Russian Khaganate”. According to the American, this was the first formation of the Slavic states (the 6th grade should hardly get acquainted with such a controversial theory). However, it has the right to exist and was called the Khazar.

Briefly about Kievan Rus

After considering all theories, it becomes clear that the first serious Slavic state was Kievan Rus, formed around the 9th century. The formation of this power took place in stages. Until 882, there is a merger and unification under the single authority of the glades, drevlyans, slovenes, ancients and polots. The union of Slavic states is marked by the merger of Kyiv and Novgorod.

After the seizure of power in Kyiv by Oleg, the second, early feudal stage in the development of Kievan Rus began. There is an active accession of previously unknown areas. So, in 981, the state expanded across the East Slavic lands up to the San River. In 992, the Croatian lands that lay on both slopes of the Carpathian Mountains were also conquered. By 1054, the power of Kyiv had spread to almost everything, and the city itself began to be referred to in documents as the “Mother of Russian Cities”.

Interestingly, by the second half of the 11th century, the state began to disintegrate into separate principalities. However, this period did not last long, and in the face of the common danger in the face of the Polovtsy, these tendencies ceased. But later, due to the strengthening of the feudal centers and the growing power of the military nobility, Kievan Rus nevertheless breaks up into specific principalities. In 1132 the period began feudal fragmentation. This state of affairs, as we know, existed until the Baptism of All Rus'. Idea united state became in demand at that time.

Symbols of the Slavic states

Modern Slavic states are very diverse. They are distinguished not only by nationality or language, but also public policy, and the level of patriotism, and the degree of economic development. Nevertheless, it is easier for the Slavs to understand each other - after all, the roots that go back centuries form the very mentality that all known "rational" scientists deny, but which sociologists and psychologists confidently speak about.

Indeed, even if we consider the flags of the Slavic states, one can see some regularity and similarity in the color palette. There is such a thing - pan-Slavic colors. They were first discussed in late XIX century at the First Slavic Congress in Prague. Supporters of the idea of ​​uniting all Slavs proposed to adopt a tricolor with equal horizontal stripes of blue, white and red as their flag. Rumor has it that the banner of the Russian merchant fleet served as a model. Is this really so - it is very difficult to prove, but the flags of the Slavic states often differ in the smallest details, and not in colors.

1. East Slavs. Old Russian education

states.

Norman and anti-Norman theory.

Origin of the Slavs.

The original region of the ancient ethnic Slavs, which received the name of the "ancestral home" of the Slavic tribes, is still ambiguously determined by scientists.

The chronicler Nestor in The Tale of Bygone Years pointed to the Lower Danube and Hungary as the original territory of Slavic settlement. This opinion was shared by such historians as S. M. Solovyov and V. O. Klyuchevsky.

According to another medieval theory, the ancestors of the Slavs came from Western Asia and settled along Black Sea coast under the names "Scythians", "Sarmatians", "Roksolani". From here they gradually settled to the west and southwest.

Among other theories, Asian, Baltic, and others are known.

Modern domestic historical science believes that the ancestors of the Slavs emerged from the ancient Indo-European unity that inhabited most of Eurasia, no earlier than the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. They were originally settled from the Baltic to the Carpathians.

In the history of the Slavs, as well as other peoples of Europe, an important role was played by the invasion of the Huns, which caused mass migration.

Neighbors of the Eastern Slavs.

The neighbors of the Eastern Slavs were Iranians, Finnish, Baltic tribes.

Way of life and beliefs of the Eastern Slavs.

The basis of the economy of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture in combination with cattle breeding and various crafts. Iron tools were actively used. In trade with the developed countries of the East and Byzantium, the export of furs played a special role.

They lived sedentary, choosing hard-to-reach places for settlements or erecting defensive structures around them. The main type of dwelling is a semi-dugout with a two- or three-pitched roof.

The sky god Svarog was considered the progenitor of the gods. They also worshiped such Gods as Mokosh, Khors, Dazhd.

The cults of mermaids, watermen were developed, the Slavs considered water to be the element from which the world was formed. Tree spirits were also worshipped. To free the soul from the body, cremation was performed. They worshiped idols, wore amulets.

Prerequisites for the formation of the state.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium, the Slavs lived in tribal communities. Each community represented several families connected by consanguinity. The economy in it was carried out collectively: products and tools were in common ownership. However, already at that time the tribal system began to outlive itself. The Slavs distinguished leaders with hereditary power.

By the 9th century, tribal relations among the Slavs were in the process of decomposition. The neighboring /territorial/ community comes to the place of the tribal community. The ties between the community members were not blood, but economic.

The emergence of property inequality, the concentration of power in the hands of tribal and tribal leaders,

the emergence of property inequality, the concentration of power and wealth in the hands of tribal and tribal leaders,

The emergence of property inequality, the concentration of power and wealth in the hands of tribal and tribal leaders - all this created the prerequisites for the emergence of state power.

The first steps towards the development of the beginnings of statehood belong to the Slavs to the 6th century.

Kyiv and Novgorod became the centers of formation of the Old Russian state.

In 882 Rurik's successor Oleg makes a campaign against Kyiv and captures it. There was a union of Kyiv and Novgorod lands into one state with the capital in Kyiv.

NORMAN AND ANTI-NORMAN

For the first time, the "Norman theory" was expressed by German scientists, Ser. 18th century Miller, Schlozer and Bayer.

The essence of their theory: the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangians testifies that before the arrival of the Varangians, the Eastern Slavs were in an absolutely barbaric state, statehood and culture were brought to them by the Varangians-Scandinavians.

Although M.V. Lomonosov convincingly demonstrated the scientific inconsistency of the Norman theory, it was repeatedly reanimated by the opponents of Russia to substantiate the assertion that the Slavs were allegedly incapable of independent historical development - they needed foreign leadership. In particular, this theory was actively promoted in Nazi Germany.

The Varangians played an episodic role, although, as history decreed, and important in the creation of a UNIFIED Old Russian state, but they did not bring statehood to the Slavs.

There is also a second version:
Rurik was not a Norman, he was a relative of one of the Jewish boyars, who invited him to reign.

862 - the beginning of the reign of Rurik in Novgorod
882 - the unification of Rus' under the rule of Prince Oleg

2. The Golden Horde and Rus': features of the relationship. Consequences for historical development.

At the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongol tribes, united by the power of Genghis Khan, began campaigns of conquest, the purpose of which was to create a huge superpower.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages. Its military power for a long time had no equal.

The beginning of the political history of the Golden Horde dates back to 1243, when Batu returned from a campaign in Europe. In the same year, Grand Duke Yaroslav was the first of the Russian rulers to arrive at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan for a label to reign.

The ethnonym "Mongols" is the self-name of the tribes united by Genghis Khan, however, wherever the Mongol troops appeared, they were called Tatars. This was due exclusively to the Chinese chronicle tradition, which from the 12th century stubbornly called all the Mongols "Tatars", which corresponded to the European concept of "barbarians".

One of the stereotypical ideas about the Golden Horde is that this state was purely nomadic and had almost no cities. Already the successors of Genghis Khan clearly understood that "it is impossible to rule the Celestial Empire while sitting on a horse." More than a hundred cities were created in the Golden Horde, which served as administrative-tax and trade and craft centers. The capital of the state - the city of Sarai - numbered 75 thousand inhabitants.

In the initial period of the Golden Horde, culture developed largely due to the consumption of the achievements of the conquered peoples.

The construction of cities was accompanied by the development of architecture and house-building technology.

Relations between Russia and the Horde

In 1237-1240, the Russian lands, divided in military and political terms, were defeated and devastated by the troops of Batu. The attacks of the Mongols on Ryazan, Vladimir, Rostov, Suzdal, Galich, Tver, Kyiv left an impression of shock in the minds of the Russian people.

More than two-thirds of all settlements were destroyed.

During the first ten years after the invasion, the conquerors did not take tribute, being engaged only in robbery and destruction. When the collection of systematic tribute began, relations between Rus' and the Horde took predictable and stable forms - a phenomenon was born that was called the "Mongol yoke". At the same time, however, the practice of periodic punitive campaigns did not stop until the XIV century.

Many Russian princes were subjected to terror and intimidation in order to prevent anti-Horde actions on their part.

Russian-Horde relations were not easy, but it would be a mistake to reduce them only to total pressure on Rus'.

We owe the emergence of the term "yoke" to N.M. Karamzin.

In the middle of the XIV century, there were 110 cities in the Golden Horde, and 50 cities in northeastern Rus'. Without a doubt, a significant part of the cities of the Golden Horde was built on Russian silver and by the hands of captured masters.

The fact that the oppression was not direct was also specific: the oppressor lived far away, and not among the conquered people. As the Horde weakened, oppression lost its edge.

In the middle of the XIII century, Rus' was subjected to double aggression - from the East and the West. The goal of the crusaders - the defeat of Orthodoxy - affected the vital interests of the Slavs, while the Mongols were religiously tolerant, they could not seriously threaten the spiritual culture of the Russians.

Alexander Nevsky, enlisting the diplomatic support of the Mongols and insuring his rear, suppressed all attempts by the Germans and Swedes to penetrate the lands of Rus'.

Dependence on the Horde was combined with the ambiguous development of political and diplomatic relations. Russian played a special role Orthodox Church. Already at the first tax census conducted by the Mongols in Rus' in 1246, the church and the clergy were excluded from it and left alone.

The turning point occurred in 1380, when the Moscow army marched against the Horde temnik Mamai on the Kulikovo field. Rus' got stronger, the Horde began to lose its former power. The policy of Alexander Nevsky naturally turned into the policy of Dmitry Donskoy.

The Horde yoke had a powerful impact on the course of Russian history. The loss of state independence and the payment of tribute were not easy moral labor for the Russian people. But the struggle against these phenomena accelerated the process of centralization of the Russian state, laid the foundation for the creation of Russian statehood.