Sculptural figure. Sculpture: species specificity, features of artistic language, main issues, terminology

The concept of sculpture

Sculpture(from Latin sculptura, from sculpo - I carve, cut out) - sculpture, plastic - a kind of art, the works of which reflect the surrounding reality in three-dimensional, physically three-dimensional images using various plastic materials.

For a long time, the concepts of "sculpture" and "plastic" were considered synonymous, but semantic load them differ. Sculpture is a broader concept. Plastic, on the one hand, is a technique of sculpture from soft materials (clay, plasticine, wax, eglin), on the other hand, it is an artistic and visual means that allows you to give sculpture an imagery. Unlike painting, graphics sculpture covers a smaller range of objects, phenomena that could become objects for the image. Expressive means in sculpture are developed with greater care. In many ways, sculpture has something in common with architecture. Since both types of art deal with volume and space, obey the laws of tectonics 1 , they are material in nature and often complement each other. However, there is a significant difference. Architecture has a functional purpose, it organizes in a certain way the space for human life, which cannot be said about sculpture. Real, and not pictorial three-dimensionality, corporality is the main feature of this art.

Sculptors are most sensitive to volume and form. This ability is a necessary component of plastic creativity, like a painter's "sense of color" or a musician's "absolute pitch". Comprehension of volume occurs not only with the sculptor, but also with the viewer. To understand the essence of a sculptural work, it is necessary to be able to understand the “play” of surfaces, to feel into shaping, its imagery, since sculpture is not an incorporeal volume, but an image expressed in a certain material, made in a certain technique and revealing a certain idea. A complete "reading" of sculpture is possible when the essence of the material is understood - its physical qualities and capabilities, beauty and variety of texture.

1. Tectonics (from Greek tektonik6s - related to construction).

The coolness and tenderness of porcelain cannot fully convey masculinity, swiftness, determination, courage, just as the warmth and simplicity of wood are not suitable for creating an image of majestic, important, regal and ambitious. As Lao Tzu said, "pots are made of clay, but the clay ceases to be clay, turning into a pot." It is this feature that allows the material to become the material carrier of the image and makes the sculpture a concise art. Laconism lies in the ability to generalize the form and concentrate the content of the artistic image. This is one of the main paradoxes of sculpture: on the one hand, it is easy to perceive, since the forms are generalized and concretized in it, on the other hand, it is complex, since generalization is due to symbolism, and this complicates its understanding. Very often, simple combinations of forms contain the deepest thought, and vice versa, decorative excesses emphasize emptiness, lack of content.

Sculpture as an art form is interesting because, like in real art, there is a lot of understatement and this contributes to the development figurative thinking viewer, encourages him to co-create. But in order to participate in this process, it is necessary to master at least a minimum of knowledge that reveals certain laws and rules of sculpture. Knowledge of these patterns and expressive features of sculpture is necessary for both children and teachers (present and future). In this regard, it seems important to consider a number of issues that will help to understand the specifics of sculpture.

Types of sculpture

Sculpture refers to a type of art that is increasingly included in the daily life of a person imperceptibly for him. Often we do not even notice that we are surrounded by things that are part of the sculpture. For example, talisman key rings, medallions, coins, figurines on a shelf, cameos, etc. All this speaks of the diversity of sculpture and at the same time of its integrity.

The expressive means and materials used in the work allow the sculptor to create both a majestic monument to the hero and a small relief pendant. Between them there are many different in appearance and genre of sculptural works.

On the basis of three-dimensional volume:

- round sculpture, whose products are freely located in space, i.e., they imply a circular view, a play of volume and space. The round sculpture has several varieties:

statue(the figure is in full growth);

sculptural group(two figures or more, revealing one idea and constituting a single whole);

statuette(a sculptural figurine of small size, much smaller than its actual size);

torso(sculptural image of a human torso);

bust(chest image of a person);

head(sculptural portrait of a person, limited by the image of the head).

Another type of round sculpture appeared - kinesthetic, which does not require a detour, it demonstrates itself through the movements it makes;

- relief (the image is located on a plane that serves as a background, translated as "raised", "convex"). The main difference between the relief and the round sculpture is that only the front part of the block is perceived in it, since it is connected with the wall. The relief has several varieties, they vary depending on its purpose and position on the architectural plane ( frontal composition, frieze, ceiling, tiles, fragmentary).

The location of the relief affects its height:

bas-relief- a relief that has a small height, it protrudes by less than half of the entire volume. The real volume in the bas-relief is little expressed, it is enclosed in a shallow zone between the background and the front plane parallel to it;

high relief - relief, which has a large height, it protrudes from the surface by more than half the volume. The high-relief figures resemble statues that are pushed close to the wall. The high relief can be viewed from three sides; it seems to embrace the sculptural form, freely penetrating to the very background;

counter-relief- in-depth relief, not protruding on the surface, but taking the volume out of the surface;

mixed relief has elements of several types of relief. For example, on the plate there is a convex relief image, the contour of which is made with the help of deep grooves.

-monumental and decorative, directly related to a specific architectural-spatial or natural environment. Its main difference from other types of sculpture lies in the joint, inseparable existence with an architectural structure, for example, relief pediments, friezes, statues on pediments, balustrades, portals, in niches, columns in the form of sculptures (caryatids, atlantes);

- decorative, designed to decorate parks, gardens, streets, squares, boulevards, fountains. Along with architecture, it creates a certain image of the city, is not associated with a separate building, focuses on the landscape or architectural ensemble. In decorative sculpture, one can distinguish such kinds:

landscape gardening- placed in recreation areas (squares, parks, gardens, alleys, rest houses, sanatoriums, etc.);

urban- located on the streets of the city, sometimes makes the faceless streets solemn, interesting, sometimes funny.

In urban sculpture, there are several directions:

monuments dedicated to various cultural figures, heroes, statesmen;

plastic works associated with the biography of a particular figure (for example, a sculpture located near the Moscow Circus named after Yu. V. Nikulin; the sculptural group "Natalie and A.S. Pushkin", located on the Arbat in Moscow);

allegorical sculpture, which conveys an abstract idea through an image. Sculptures dedicated to fairy-tale characters, historical events can be allegorical (for example, the sculptural group “Samson tearing the mouth of a lion” in Peterhof, personifying the victory of Russia over Sweden in the Great Northern War; a plot from folklore “Permyak - salty ears” in Perm; "Chizhik-Pyzhik" in St. Petersburg);

sculpture representing a collective image any profession or social phenomena(for example, a monument to a dog brutally killed in the subway, the sculpture "Plumber" located on the sidewalk, the sculpture "Kiss" by C. Brancausi; the sculpture "Housekeeper" attached to the window of a residential building);

- easel, having an independent meaning and a more intimate nature, not directly related to architecture, landscape. It is not intended for any specific place, its perception is not influenced by the place where it is located.

The name comes from the word "machine" - a rotating stand on which the master places the sculpture while working. Therefore, easel sculpture is close in size to the natural size of the depicted objects (human, objects, animals). Most of all, it is located in the halls of museums, residential interiors, at exhibitions, which are its usual environment;

- small sculpture, multifaceted in nature and includes wide circle works of various nature, functions and genres. It is customary to call a sculpture of a small form small-sized works of a genre theme, intended for residential interiors, places of worship;

- small plastic(works of a small, "miniature" size). The most ancient type of small plastic art is considered to be art. glyptics (carving performed on solid semi-precious minerals). Some of these works had multiple indentations, which made it possible to use them as seals. The images themselves were called intaglio , which in different cultural and historical periods were of various forms. Another kind of small plastic - bone carving (elephant, walrus), whose works are also small in size. Despite the fact that in different parts of the world they were engaged in this fishery, few became the most famous. Among them are figurines of Severo-Kholmogory masters and Japanese miniatures - netsuke.

The variety of small plastic works is great. These can be attributed small figurines from semi-precious stones, wood, bronze, porcelain, faience, glass; embossed plates, performing the functions of brooches (clasps), brooches, amulets, cameos, coins, medals, etc. On the one hand, works of small plastic art are utilitarian and are not of great importance in human life (key chains made in the form of relief images), on the other hand, they carry serious religious and civic ideas. For example, a medal is a relief image of certain symbols located on both sides of the plate, or figurines of idols revered in paganism, a cross with the image of the crucified Christ.

By degree of approximation sculptures to real objects the following types of reality are distinguished:

- realistic- through plastic images it reflects objects and phenomena of a really existing reality;

- allegorical- resembles a simple pictorial rebus, which contains a system of identification marks that allow you to solve it. The allegory contains certain attributes that make the sculpture easily recognizable. For example, a sculpture depicting a blindfolded woman with scales in her hands represents justice.

kind of allegory personification, denoting the embodiment of an abstract concept in the form of a human figure. For example, Nike, personifying victory; Fortune denoting fate; Libertas characterizes freedom.

Within the framework of personalized works of sculpture, geographical personifications very often appear, in which the image of rivers, mountains, cities and even countries is created. In order for the essence of these works to be understood during perception, they must be accompanied by explanatory note explaining the essence of symbolism;

- abstract- consists in creating a collective plastic image that reveals only the inner essence of the depicted object, object, phenomenon or concept. External similarity is not important. Some individual elements may vaguely resemble the real form, otherwise it would be extremely difficult to “read” the idea of the sculpture. In general, the plastic image is filled with symbols and attributes that allow you to take a different look at familiar things. In abstract sculpture, the pivotal moments of this or that phenomenon are noticed brighter, clearer, thinner (for example, A. Arkhipenko’s “Woman Combing Her Hair”; G. Moore’s “Reclining Figure”; N. Gabo’s “Variations”; K. Brancusi).

Based on form the following types of sculpture are distinguished:

- monument- the most common form of sculpture, the main task is to preserve in the "eternal" material a reminder of a historical figure or significant event. Thanks to the monuments, we remember the departed people and past events for many years. In this case, the monument does not act as an echo of the past, it is relevant for each generation, since in each cultural and historical period it symbolizes something of its own;

- monument very close to the monument. It is also designed to remind people of some significant events. At first glance, it is very difficult to draw a line between a monument and a monument. However, each of them has its own specifics. Firstly, the monument has more chamber forms of expression, and the monument is always majestic. Secondly, the monument is made so that the depicted object is recognizable, for this they use the realities of the era and the attributes characteristic of a particular person. The monument, however, does not need such details, since the attributes hide a deep meaning behind them, understandable outside of time and space (for example, the Motherland monument in Volgograd; the Statue of Liberty in New York, the monument of O. Zadkin "The Ruined City" , reminiscent of the bombing of the Dutch city of Rotterdam in 1940).

There is one more difference between a monument and a monument: its location is always dictated by the architectural environment of the city. The monument, on the other hand, requires careful selection of the location, as it performs a city-forming role, occupying one of the central parts of the urban landscape, setting the style for the space around it. A monument needs a distance between it and the viewer in order to feel its greatness. The effect of elevation is achieved by a pedestal (support, stand), which, as it were, transfers the monument to another space, separating it from the ground and turning it into an identifying sign of separation from everyday reality.

The concept of "pedestal" also means a certain support, or rather "foot". However, the pedestal is associated with the monument, and the monument - with the pedestal. Although the pedestal establishes a distance between the monument and the viewer, it is not as pronounced as in the monument. The pedestal of the monument has its own pictorial language in the form of statues, reliefs, revealing the content of the entire image.

The pedestal of the monument, the pedestal of the monument, the stand for the easel sculpture, the plinth of the bust have one common property; they mark the boundary between the artistic image and the viewer, between the world of reality and the world of art;

- tombstone- very similar in function to the monument and the monument, the type of sculpture is also associated with the theme of eternity. Unlike a monument and a monument, a tombstone touches upon the issues of life and death, immortality and dying;

- genre sculpture differs from all previous types. It's not related to the topic. eternal memory, displays various life situations and phenomena in all their diversity. The form can be realistic, allegorical and even abstract. Its specificity lies in the reflection of life in a plastic image, using various genres of art.

Sculpture genres

Animal genre. The works of this genre reveal the image of an animal through plastic.

Despite the fact that humans have depicted animals since ancient times, this genre took shape in early XIX in., when several directions already existed.

First direction associated with the preservation of naturalism in the images of animals, the second is characterized by works in which animals become the personification of human qualities. The form of the image is different - from stylization to abstraction, from typification to allegory.

Portrait- creating an image of a person in general or a specific person. The genre is simple and difficult at the same time, since sculpture is limited in expressive means, which complicates the process of plastic shaping.

Some sculptors strive for naturalism (a person is depicted as he is); others idealize the model (the person is portrayed as he would like to see himself in the eyes of others).

The development of the portrait genre in different cultural and historical periods had its own features (the image of a representative of the people, estate, era was created), which led to the selection of several varieties:

- chamber the portrait is distinguished by external simplicity, hiding the inner world of the model. It most clearly manifests the informal attitude of the author to the model;

- front door the portrait looks more solemn and at the same time detached from the viewer, as if rising above the ordinary and everyday life due to the huge number of decorative elements (elements of the costume, accessories, attributes, etc.);

- portrait-genre - not just a portrait of a person, but the realization of a certain idea of a portrait based on synthesis with another genre. For example, the image of a historical figure combines two genres: a portrait and a historical genre, a statue of Apollo - a portrait and a mythological genre.

Household, mythological and historical genres are less common in sculpture.

household genre involves the disclosure in sculpture of the themes of everyday life, acquaintance with the realities of everyday life. The content side of the works of the everyday genre touches on very deep topics, having philosophical roots, prompting the viewer to think about complex life issues.

Historical and mythological genres have a longer history of development. The themes of history, mythology and religion have long worried sculptors, because each era is characterized by its own interpretation. historical events, mythological or religious subjects.

Still life and landscape. Initially, they were used only in conjunction with some other leading genre. But recently, when the object and nature have become a separate subject for works of plastic art, sculptures have appeared that enable the viewer to look at the world around them as if they were a living organism. A prerequisite for the development of these genres were experiments with sculptural form, which made it possible to get rid of the lifelikeness of the depicted and to avoid the effect of a dummy.

fragment genre. It contains individual elements human body, fragments of objects of nature and objects.

The artistic stimulus for the development of this genre was the fragments of ancient sculptures found during archaeological excavations, which, for all their incompleteness, remained expressive and interesting. It is because of their atypicality that they have become a collector's item. Gradually, the fragments gained independence in sculpture.

O. Rodin, who drew the attention of others to the amazing plastic and artistic sound of parts of the human body, and U. Boccioni, who looked at things futuristically, having examined them from the inside, are rightly considered bright representatives of this genre.

Question 1

TICKET #7

Sculpture is a type of fine art, the works of which have a volumetric, three-dimensional form.
Sculpture can be made in any genre - figurative (portrait, historical, genre composition, nude, religious, mythological) and animalistic genre. Materials for the manufacture of sculpture: metal, stone, clay and fired clay (faience, porcelain, terracotta, majolica), gypsum, wood, bone. Sculpture processing methods: casting, forging, chasing, carving, molding, carving.
There are two main types of plastics: round sculpture (freely placed in space) and relief (volumetric images are located on a plane).
Round sculpture.
Bypass is one of the most important conditions for the perception of round plasticity. The image of the sculpture is perceived differently from different viewing angles, and new impressions are born.
Round sculpture is divided into monumental, monumental-decorative, easel and small forms. Monumental and monumental-decorative sculpture are closely related to architecture.

monumental sculpture- sculpture associated with the architectural environment and characterized by large size and significance of ideas. Located in an urban or natural environment, it organizes an architectural ensemble, organically enters the natural landscape, decorates squares, architectural complexes, creating spatial compositions that may include architectural structures. Monumental sculpture includes:

Memorial - an architectural structure erected to perpetuate. memory of smth., smth.
Monument - a monument of considerable size in honor of a major historical event, an outstanding figure, etc.
A monumental sculpture designed to be perceived from great distances, made of durable materials (granite, bronze, copper, steel) and installed in large open spaces
A statue is a work of art created to commemorate people or historical events. One-figure and multi-figure compositions, busts, equestrian monuments
Stela - a vertically standing stone slab with an inscription, relief or pictorial image.
An obelisk is a tetrahedral, tapering column at the top, topped with a sharp point in the form of a pyramid.
Rostral column - a free-standing column, the trunk of which is decorated with sculptural images of the bow of the ships.
Triumphal arch, triumphal gates, triumphal column - a solemn building in honor of military victories and other significant events.

Monumental and decorative sculpture closely related to architecture. It serves to decorate the facades and interiors of buildings, as a support in the architectural structure:

Atlas - a column in the form of a male sculptural figure supporting a cornice, a balcony, etc.
Caryatid - a sculptural image of a standing female figure that serves as a support for a beam in a building. Usually the caryatids are leaning against the wall or protrude from it.

Monumental and decorative sculpture serves to decorate the building:

Kanefora is a sculptural image of a female figure organically inscribed in the architecture of the building. Structurally, canephors perform the functions of columns.
Capital - the crowning part of a column or pilaster
Mascaron - a relief sculptural detail made in the form of a head or mask. The mascaron is placed on the keystones of the arches of door and window openings, on consoles, walls, etc.
The plafond is a stucco ornament on the ceiling.
Rosette - a picturesque or sculptural ornamental motif in the form of a stylized blossoming flower
Frieze - the middle part of the horizontal ceiling, between the architrave beam and the cornice

Monumental and decorative sculpture serves to decorate parks and gardens:

Park sculpture or garden sculpture
fountain sculpture

easel sculpture- a type of sculpture that has independent significance, designed for perception at close range and not associated with architecture. Usually the size of the easel sculpture is close to life size. Easel sculpture is characterized by psychologism, narrative, symbolistic and metaphorical language is often used.
It includes different kinds sculptural composition: head, bust, torso, figure, group.
Sculpture of small forms- small sculptural works created to decorate the interior. Sculpture of small forms includes genre figurines, desktop portraits, toys.
Relief.
the sculptural image is located on the background plane and is designed for frontal perception. The relief can have an independent easel value, and be part of an architectural or sculptural work.
Almost everything that is available in painting and graphics can be depicted in relief: landscape, complex plot compositions, etc. Therefore, a sculptor working in relief has more room for imagination than a sculptor creating a round sculpture.
The relief is divided into convex relief: bas-relief, high relief and in-depth relief: counter-relief, koilanaglyph.

bas-relief- low relief, a kind of convex relief, in which the images protrude above the background plane by no more than half the volume.
A variety of bas-relief, common in the Renaissance, is scenic relief, in which the figures, objects are strongly flattened, and the background (landscape or architecture) is marked with a weak relief. Picturesque relief occupies an intermediate position between sculpture and painting; perspective cuts and picturesque effects (sunbeams, clouds, waves) can be used in it. The difference between strongly and weakly protruding images in pictorial relief is small, an almost graphic linear drawing plays an important role. Picturesque relief was often used in reliefs to convey the background.
High relief- high relief, a kind of convex relief, in which the image protrudes above the background plane by more than half the volume.
counter-relief- a type of in-depth relief, which is a kind of negative of a bas-relief.
Coilanaglyph- a kind of deep relief with a deep contour and convex modeling, the image itself is usually at the level of the background.

Sculpture is one of the most ancient forms of art. Sculpture [from lat. skulpo - cut out, carve] - sculpture, plastic, a type of fine art, the works of which have a three-dimensional three-dimensional shape and are made of solid or plastic materials. This is a type of fine art, the works of which have a material three-dimensional volume. These works themselves (statues, busts, reliefs, and the like) are also called sculpture.

Sculpture is a spatial and visual art, mastering the world in plastic images, which are imprinted in materials that can convey the life image of phenomena.

Sculpture shows a certain closeness to architecture: it also deals with space and volume, obeys the laws of tectonics and is material in nature. But unlike architecture, it is not functional, but pictorial. The main specific features of sculpture are physicality, materiality, laconicism and universality.

The materiality of the sculpture is due to the ability of a person to feel the volume. But the highest form of touch in sculpture, leading him to new level perception, becomes the ability of a person to “visually touch” the form perceived through the sculpture, when the eye acquires the ability to correlate the depth and convexity of different surfaces, subordinating them to the semantic integrity of all perception.

The materiality of sculpture is manifested in the concreteness of the material, which, taking shape, ceases to be an objective reality for a person and becomes a material carrier of an artistic idea.

Sculpture is the art of transforming space through volume. Each culture brings its own understanding of the relationship between volume and space: antiquity understands the volume of the body as an arrangement in space, the Middle Ages - space as an unreal world, the Baroque era - space as an environment captured by the sculptural volume and conquered by it, classicism - the balance of space, volume and form. The 19th century allowed space to “enter” the world of sculpture, giving the volume fluidity in space, and the 20th century, continuing this process, made sculpture mobile and passable for space.

The laconism of the sculpture is connected with the fact that it is practically devoid of plot and narrative. Therefore, it can be called the spokesman for the abstract in the concrete. The ease of perception of the sculpture is only apparent. Sculpture is symbolic, conditional and artistic, which means it is complex and deep for perception.

Types and genres of sculpture

Sculpture is divided into two types: round, freely placed in real space, visible from all sides (statue or composition), and relief (bas-relief and high relief), in which three-dimensional images are located on a plane and protrude from it.

Bypass is one of the most important conditions for the perception of round plasticity. A feature of the round sculpture is that the image can be perceived differently from different points of view: new impressions are born that reveal the model in continuously changing silhouettes. Plastic expressiveness acquires a special power of influence through the use of light and shadow transitions.

Relief images are connected with the plane and do not reproduce the full volume of the depicted body. A relief appeared in ancient Egypt.

A variety of convex relief is a low relief bas-relief, in which the images protrude above the background plane by no more than half of their total volume. Bas-reliefs adorn the walls of buildings, pedestals of monuments, steles, memorial plaques, coins, medals, cameos.

Another type of convex relief is high relief - high relief, in which the image rises above the background plane by more than half of its volume and can be perceived as an almost round sculpture, slightly in contact with the plane.

The relief can protrude above the background plane (convex relief) or deepen into it. Recessed relief - counter-relief - is found in the architecture of Ancient Egypt, on ancient Eastern and ancient seals.

The world of sculpture is represented by a wide variety of types and genres.

Types of sculpture:

Small plastic [ancient glyptics - carving on semi-precious minerals; bone carving; figurines from different materials, amulets and talismans; medals, etc.];

Sculpture of small forms [figurines up to half a meter of genre themes, intended for interiors and designed for intimacy perception];

Easel sculpture [a statue designed for all-round viewing, close to life of the real dimensions of the human body, autonomous and not requiring connection with a specific interior];

Monumental and decorative sculpture includes all types of decoration of architectural structures [atlantes, caryatids, friezes, park, fountain and pediment sculpture, works intended for squares, reliefs, etc.];

Monumental [gravestones, monuments, monuments] is associated with the architectural environment, is distinguished by the significance of ideas, a high degree of generalization, and large size;

Monumental sculpture is one of the oldest types of sculpture, which had a cult, memorial purpose. Monumental sculpture includes one-figure and multi-figure compositions, equestrian monuments, memorial ensembles, monuments in memory of outstanding people and events, commemorative statues, busts, reliefs. Located in an urban or natural environment, it organizes an architectural ensemble, organically enters the natural landscape, decorates squares, architectural complexes, creating spatial compositions. Monumental sculpture, designed to be perceived from great distances, is made of durable materials (granite, bronze, copper, steel) and is installed in large open spaces (on natural elevations, on artificially created mounds).

Sculpture of small forms stands out separately.

Sculpture genres:

The most popular genre in sculpture is the portrait. The development of the portrait genre in sculpture goes almost in parallel with ideas about the role of the individual in history. Depending on this understanding, the portrait becomes either more realistic or idealized. The forms of the portrait in history were varied: mummy masks, a herma [a four-sided pillar with a portrait head] among the Greeks, a Roman bust. The portrait began to be divided according to its purpose: front and chamber.

Household sculpture.

Thematic composition (two-figure, multi-figure composition).

The animalistic genre develops in sculpture even earlier than the portrait. But it gets its real development with the collapse of anthropocentric ideas about the world and human awareness of the single materiality of the world.

Symbolic images.

Allegorical images.

Animalistic and mythological genre.

The genre of sculpture dedicated to the depiction of animals is called the animalistic genre (from lat. animal - animal). The animalist refers to the artistic characteristics of the animal, its habits. Sculptors depict animals starting from the primitive communal system, they are widespread in the art of Ancient Egypt, in ancient sculpture and in subsequent eras.

A special place in sculpture is given to the fragment genre - individual parts of the human body (head, bust, statue, sculptural group). The sculptural fragment arises on the basis of collecting fragments of ancient statues and develops as an independent phenomenon with new artistic and aesthetic possibilities for expressing content in which there is no given plot, but only a plastic motif. O. Rodin is considered the ancestor of this genre.

The historical genre is associated with the reflection of specific historical events and the story of their participants. Most often, this genre realizes itself in monumental forms.

Landscape and still life can be recreated by sculptural means. But the main object for the sculptor is a person who can be embodied in various forms.

It originated in ancient times and remains to this day a very popular decoration of cities, temples, as well as a way of self-expression of the master. Many of the sculptures are attractions themselves. There are many examples of world-famous statues, which are visited by millions of tourists every year.

Today there are different types sculptures, which will be discussed in this article.

Definition

Before you start talking about sculpture as an art form, you need to understand what it is, to define the term. Sculpture is not just one of the types of fine art, but one of its most important elements, the main feature of which is that the works have a three-dimensional form made of solid or plastic materials.

Painting, graphics and sculpture are art forms that are very close in many ways. That is why many artists and painters were also excellent sculptors.

A bit of history

As mentioned above, sculpture arose in time immemorial. The first figurines and small sculptures began to appear in the prehistoric period of the Stone Age. In those days, sculptures were used as religious idols.

Also, everyone knows the ancient sculptures, which are of enormous size, located on about. Easter. There are still many rumors and legends around them.

With the advent of the first ancient civilizations (Ancient Egypt, Sumer, Phenicia, etc.), sculptures became a more frequent attribute. They were not only a religious object, but also often became the decoration of large temples, palaces of rulers and decoration of cities.

Sculpture as a form of fine art reached an incredible flowering in the ancient period. The ancient Greeks and Romans highly valued this craft. They decorated their cities, houses and temples with sculptures, and their craftsmen were the best in all the then known world.

IN early Middle Ages there was some lull in this area, but by the end of this historical stage, sculpture began to develop with renewed vigor. A particularly strong boom began in the Renaissance, when painting and sculpture experienced a real take-off.

Starting from the New Age and up to the present day, sculpture remains one of the most striking and sought-after forms of art.

Types of sculpture (classification)

There are several ways and principles by which the division of sculpture into varieties is carried out. If divided by genre, then there are: portrait, symbolic, allegorical, historical and others.

There are also circular sculptures that can be viewed from all sides, and relief sculptures (high relief, bas-relief, counter-relief), where only part of the figure has volume.

Sculpture can be divided into types according to the materials from which it is made, according to historical periods, geographical characteristics, etc. There are a lot of classifications.

Sculpture and architecture

Almost immediately, as civilizations began to arise, and large temple and palace buildings appeared, these two types of art began to merge into a symbiosis. Architecture and sculpture are often integral parts of a single object.

Moreover, their "cooperation" is expressed not only in the fact that the sculptures are often used as decoration of the interior of the building. It is worth looking at buildings in the Gothic or Baroque style, as everything becomes clear. For example, remember the well-known Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, which is completely dotted with various sculptures, not only bas-reliefs, but also circular ones.

And there are many such examples. In modern architecture, sculptures are no longer often used as decorations for buildings, but there are many structures that, although nominally buildings, are actually sculptures. An example is the Statue of Liberty, inside which there is an observation deck (today entry into it is prohibited) and not only.

Sculpture in the form of a human figure

People have always been interested in humanity, so it is not surprising that sculptors most often sought to capture the human figure, part of the body, or give their creation an anthropomorphic form. It was only in the 20th century that more and more tendencies began to appear that deviated from this principle.

The best masters depicting people were considered the ancient Greeks, Romans and masters who worked in the Renaissance. Among the famous creations, one can single out the sculpture "Laocoön and his sons", made by the ancient Greek masters Agesander, Polydorus and Athenodorus. Also known is the creation "The Dying Gaul", the author of which is considered to be Epigon, but there is no exact information about this.

Of course, there are many more examples. There are more famous ones, but the fact remains that many sculptors still willingly create sculptures of people today.

Modern stage

Today, extravagant styles and types of painting and sculpture are increasingly appearing, thanks to which new masters seek to attract attention and shock the public. However, thanks to this, the world of sculpture has become more diverse, interesting and modern.

Suffice it to recall the creations of the famous Colombian sculptor and artist Fernando Botero, whose products today flaunt in many major cities and capitals of the world. His "chubby" made a splash in the art world.

In addition to him, of course, there are other modern masters whose sculptures are extravagant, but at the same time something fresh and new in art. This is the main trend in recent history humanity.

It's no secret that outstanding works of art are sold at art auctions for big money, but few people know that the most expensive sculpture was valued at 141 million 800 thousand US dollars. It is called "Pointing Man" and was created in 1947 by the famous sculptor Alberto Giacometti.

In addition to the fact that the sculptures can be very expensive, they are sometimes very large. The tallest statue in the world is Shakyamuni Buddha in Myanmar. Its height is about 130 meters, if you count with the pedestal. Without it, it has a height of more than 115 meters.

Modern people are accustomed to seeing antique sculptures in their natural color, but as recent studies have shown, the Greeks and Romans painted them with various colors, and quite brightly. It's just that over time, the paint faded in the sun and was erased under the influence of other natural phenomena.

Many ancient sculptures have come down to our time with various kinds of flaws: chips, lack of some parts, etc. Art critics, museums and sculptors of the 19th-20th centuries at first tried to restore the missing parts on their own, but over time, after numerous restoration failures, people realized that that it is better not to restore the works of antiquity, but to leave them in the form in which they were found.

Impact on culture

Whatever type of sculpture it is, it is still a subject of art, therefore it has a direct impact on it. It is one of the strong means of self-expression, decoration of cities, interior, exterior, etc.

Since ancient times, sculptures have had a huge impact on art and culture in general, being part of them. They are still considered an important element in the life of mankind today.

Many famous statues are now a symbol of a religion, a city or even an entire country. Recall at least the famous statue of Christ the Redeemer, which today not only symbolizes Rio de Janeiro, but the whole of Brazil.

Approximately the same can be said about the Statue of Liberty in New York or the statue of the Motherland in Volgograd. And there are many such examples. In almost every major city has its own remarkable sculpture or several.

In addition to the famous and symbolic statues, there are ordinary urban sculptures that do not represent great historical or cultural value, but were created solely to decorate city streets. As a rule, they are made from inexpensive materials like bronze, iron, etc.

Finally

Painting, graphics and sculpture are art forms that arose a very long time ago, but still exist to this day. Moreover, interest in them does not decrease at all, and to some extent even increases.

IN modern society there are a large number of people interested in art, and the creations of old masters, as a rule, are under the protection of the state and society.

People have always liked to contemplate the beautiful, giving pleasure not only to the eyes, but also to the brain, giving it topics for reflection, so many sculptures do not just depict something, but demonstrate some kind of plot, idea and thought. Looking at such works of art, people involuntarily begin to think about what the author wanted to convey and convey to people.

Sculpture has not only not disappeared as an art form, but continues to develop actively even now. There are all new types, styles, materials, etc. Sculptors from all over the world are trying their best to stand out and promote their creativity.

In the face of fierce competition, modern sculptors have to be more creative in their work or hobby. This, according to many, is the engine of contemporary art in general, and not just sculpture.

According to its purpose, the sculpture is divided into: - on the monumental; - monumental-decorative; - easel; and - sculpture of small forms.

The first and, perhaps, the main one is the section monumental sculpture, which includes one-figure and multi-figure monuments, monuments in memory of outstanding events and busts-monuments. All of them are installed in public places, most often in the open air. They are always generalized in design and artistic form, they are distinguished by their large size (usually two or three life sizes), and the durability of the material. Monumental sculpture serves the cause of propaganda of the most important transformative social ideas. The monument always appeals to the broad masses of spectators and affirms a positive image (of course, from the point of view of those who build this monument). City monuments (their construction is usually under the control of the state) commemorate those people who have gained general fame. It is impossible to erect a monument in the city square to a person who is close only to the sculptor himself - wife, brother, friend (not only for technical and economic reasons), while it is quite possible to create their portraits for an exhibition or museum in the easel plan. It is here that the watershed between easel and monumental art passes.

monumental sculpture

Sculpture: - designed for a specific architectural-spatial or natural environment; - addressed to the mass audience; - designed to concretize the architectural image and complement the expressiveness of architectural forms with new shades.

Monumental art includes: - Monuments and monuments; - sculptural, picturesque, mosaic compositions for buildings; - stained-glass windows; - urban and park sculpture; - fountains, etc.

acroterium - a sculptural decoration placed over the corners of the pediment of an architectural structure built using a classical order.

Biga - a sculptural image on a building or on the arch of a chariot drawn by a pair of horses.

germa - in parks and gardens of the XVIII century. - a sculptural image in the form of a head or a bust on a tetrahedral support.

desudeportes- a picturesque or sculptural panel located above the door and associated with it by a common decorative design.

Kanefora- a sculptural image of a female figure organically inscribed in the architecture of the building. Structurally, canephors perform the functions of columns.

Caryatid - a sculptural image of a standing female figure, which serves as a support for a beam in a building. Usually the caryatids are leaning against the wall or protrude from it.

mascaron - a relief sculptural detail made in the form of a head or a mask. The mascaron is placed on the keystones of the arches of door and window openings, on consoles, walls, etc.

pandative- sculptural molding located (hanging) at the top of the vault.

pedestal - either the architectural basis of the sculpture (pedestal); - or a stand on which the work of easel sculpture is installed.

Protoma - a sculptural image of the front of a bull, horse, other animal or person.

Pedestal - an artistically designed base for a sculpture, vase, obelisk or column.

Monument - a work of art created to commemorate people or historical events: a sculptural group, a statue, a bust, a slab with a relief or an inscription, a triumphal arch, a column, an obelisk, a tomb, a tombstone.

Stele- a vertically standing stone slab with an inscription, relief or pictorial image.

Obelisk- a tetrahedral, tapering upward column, crowned with a sharp point in the form of a pyramid.

Rostral column- a free-standing column, the trunk of which is decorated with sculptural images of the bow of the ships.

The master of a monumental monument must be able to correctly "place" the figure, make the silhouette expressive and beautiful from all sides and from different distances. The content of the monument must be perceived both at first sight and when moving past the monument or around it - from many points of view. Various aspects, developing the main idea of the monument, make it more multifaceted and richer. The pose, gesture of the figure, its movement must be compositionally solved in such a way as to make its content understandable. The expressiveness of not only the face, but the whole statue, the complete correspondence of the external plastic appearance to the inner world of the hero is a prerequisite for a monumental monument. Some perceive it from afar and, therefore, as a whole; others, those who come close to the monument, can peer into the expression on the face of the statue. The monument should not only have an expressive silhouette, but also be commensurate, proportional, should be an integral work of art. After all, along with the ideological content, the monument also carries architectural and artistic functions. This is not just a beautiful vertical, volume or rhythmic alternation of volumes, but an expressive image of a person who gives meaning to the whole architectural ensemble, he centers, crowns the space of the square.

However, not every monument will look good against the backdrop of the open space of the square. If the sculptor decided on the composition of the monument in the form of a seated figure, this monument is more appropriate in a park, in the "interior" of a courtyard, or against the backdrop of an architectural structure, than in the middle of a large city square. It is much more natural and organic to place such a statue where there is no noisy traffic, where the environment invites viewers to stop near the sculpture, sit and, without hurrying, examine it at close range. In addition, the viewing radius of the seated figure is reduced to 180 degrees of a circle due to the inexpressive point of view from the back, and therefore it is better if the seated figure adjoins the wall of the building or the greenery of the park with its back side.

In the artistic design of any monument, it is very important the role of the pedestal. This is not just a stand under the figure (to be seen better). This is precisely the pedestal on which the hero is raised for his services to the people. The pedestal must correspond to the architectural environment, character, style and scale of the monument as a whole. Often its faces are decorated with reliefs, which reveal the hero's historical significance more fully. The most accepted ratio of the figure to the pedestal is 1:1, although there are other proportions.

A significant role in the installation of the monument is played by its position in relation to the cardinal points, which determines the nature of its illumination at one time or another of the day.

A special section of monumental sculpture is memorial sculpture(headstone), which is installed on the graves in memory of the merits and moral virtues of the dead. The history of art knows a huge number of types of tombstones - from stately Egyptian pyramids to a modest Russian wooden dove cross in a rural cemetery. If the city monument seems to appeal to everyone, then the tombstone - most often only to a person who has come close. The sound of a memorial tombstone is usually lyrical and intimate. But the high structure of thoughts and feelings expressed by such works, their purity from everyday bustle, give them undoubted features of monumentality. Telling about the dead and reminding them of them, the tomb sculpture is emotional in nature and appeals primarily to feelings. The shape of the headstone is extremely different. This is either a portrait of the deceased (statue, bust, relief), or allegorical figures of geniuses, mourners, sometimes also accompanying the portrait image of the deceased, or, finally, it is simply the architecture of the so-called "small forms", sometimes decorated with an urn, draperies or various allegorical signs, symbolizing the short duration of human life.

Monumental and decorative sculpture

Let's get to know now monumental and decorative sculpture. It can be found literally at every turn. It is closely related to architecture, and more broadly, to the environment in general and includes all types of sculptural decoration of buildings, both inside and out: statues on city bridges, groups on building facades, in niches or in front of a portal, reliefs, etc. Monumental and decorative sculpture solves great ideological and figurative tasks. Sculpture develops and clarifies the idea and purpose of a structure, while at the same time enhancing the sound of architectural forms (sometimes in correspondence, and sometimes in contrast).

A brilliant example of architectural and sculptural synthesis in the art of socialist realism was the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition of 1937 in Paris, built according to the project of B. M. Iofan and crowned with a sculptural group by V. I. Mukhina, which has become famous since then. The whole building is permeated with movement, conveyed in the growth of horizontal forms, turning in the main central part into the vertical of the soaring pylon. The "Worker and Kolkhoz Woman" group, mounted on the roof of the pylon, consistently repeats this movement in its composition: first, forward, and then upward. Throwing up the hammer and sickle high, young and beautiful giants march forward together - a worker and a collective farm woman, personifying the entire Soviet people. The compositional axis of the group is a powerful diagonal, which gives this movement swiftness. With these means, the sculptor vividly expressed the idea of the nationwide movement of the Soviet people forward towards communism. Concretized by plot and revealed in the sculptural group, this movement, as the main melody (I would like to say: "the march of the victorious people"), receives preparation and support, as if in orchestral instrumentation, in the sound of the architectural forms of the entire building.

IN monumental and decorative sculpture, as well as in monumental sculpture, great importance has a proportional scale and the ratio of the volume of the monument and the space in which it is placed. At the same time, the sculptor needs to keep in mind not only the mathematical scale and the correct relationship with the proportions of architecture, but also the possibilities of human vision and perception. Garden and park sculpture also belongs to monumental and decorative sculpture: statues, busts, fountains, decorative vases, etc. This sculpture is closely connected with the landscape of the park, it harmonizes well either with a green background or with the colors of autumn foliage.

easel sculpture

It is called so because it is mounted on a machine or stand and is intended for exhibitions, museums, public and residential premises (the latter even gave rise to the special concept of "cabinet sculpture"). Easel sculpture is viewed at a close distance, regardless of its environment, neighboring works or interior architecture. In terms of size, easel sculpture is usually either less than natural size, or slightly exceeds it. This is done in order to avoid depicting a person in full size, as it can look like a model (an exact cast), which is unartistic and unpleasant. Easel sculpture in content is extremely diverse. Easel sculpture covers a very wide range of subjects. An easel work requires the viewer to stop in front of it for a long time, plunge into the world of feelings, experiences and characters, as if reading an interesting story, looking into the soul of the characters.

Sculpture of small forms

A special type of easel sculpture is the so-called sculpture "small forms". These are small figurines made of cast iron, bronze, glass, faience, terracotta, plastic, wood and other materials depicting people and animals. Particularly common are easel figurines of animals and domestic animals, performed by masters who are called animalists (from the Latin word "animal" - animal). In general, the section of animalistic sculpture has ancient history and cannot be credited only to the genre of easel sculpture. Such a sculpture of small forms also contains some features of decorativeness, since it is mainly intended to decorate the life of a person, his home. This is especially true for works made of porcelain and faience, which are usually colored with different colors, so that their expressiveness is created not only by volume, but also by color. In sculpture of small forms, satirical images, caricatures are possible. Being by its nature a large-circulation art, that is, such that the work created by the artist is then repeated (under conditions industrial production) in thousands of copies, the sculpture of small forms with this feature borders on applied art.