The history of Great Hellas originates in the depths of distant centuries: it is about four thousand years old. Undoubtedly, Greek civilization is of great importance for the entire modern world. World art, science, politics, philosophy and languages are closely connected with the culture and history of Greece.
Conventionally, the history of Greece can be divided into several stages, starting from the Minoan era, when, according to ancient evidence, the Greek civilization was born on the island of Crete.
Minoan era
Crete (2800 - 1500 BC)
The history of Greece and Greek civilization begins on the island of Crete around the 6th millennium BC, in the Neolithic era.
Favorable geographical position of Greece (at the intersection of trade and sea routes), undoubtedly served as one of the determining factors of its cultural and historical development, as well as the creation of civilization, to this day striking in its grandeur and grace.
It is noteworthy that it was the feminine principle that ensured such a rapid growth and prosperity of the Cretan culture in the Minoan era. In those days, more than 4 thousand years ago, in Crete, a woman occupied a particularly high position, which was lost in subsequent patriarchal centuries.
Crete tirelessly developed trade and cultural ties with its neighbors: the Cyclades, mainland Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Syria. During this period, the level of development of life on the mainland lagged far behind that of Crete. The cities of Mycenae and Tiryns, located on the southern peninsula of the Peloponnese, in many respects imitated and duplicated the achievements of Minoan Crete, then became cultural centers.
From the first stage of its existence, Greek civilization experienced the influence of the elements, and the history of Greece was forever intertwined with sea power, with the sea.
Approximately in 1500 BC, not far from the island of Crete (in close proximity to the island of Santorini), a strong earthquake occurred, which caused the irreversible process of the collapse of the Cretan civilization.
Achaean period (1400-1100 BC)
Around 1400 B.C. the northern Achaean tribes (Achaeans) came to the Peloponnese peninsula and assimilated. There are still disputes about their origin. According to one version, these are the Greek people of Northern Greece, and according to another, they are tribes that came from Central Europe. In any case, there is evidence that it was the Achaeans who brought with them the pagan cult of the Olympian gods and new elements of culture.
As a result, Mycenae significantly increased its influence and became the most powerful power in the entire Mediterranean. It was a truly legendary period, much of which became known thanks to the Homeric poems and numerous myths about the heroes and gods of ancient Greece.
The culminating moment in the history of the Achaean period was undoubtedly the Trojan War, which served as the first step towards its oblivion.
The story of Helen, described in detail by Homer, led to the collapse of the entire Greek world and to the beginning of a long-term war.
The forces of the mighty Mycenaean civilization were so depleted that it could not even withstand the attacks of the semi-savage northern tribes of the Dorians, or, as they were then called "round-headed". The era fell into decline around 1100.
Homeric period
The origin of the Dorians is still a mystery of history. But according to legend, they were descendants of Hercules.
This troubled period was one of the most difficult in the history of Greece. At first, after the invasion of the Dorian tribes, the country embarked on the path of degradation, but soon gradually began to "gain momentum", synthesizing a completely new civilization from the remnants of the Mycenaean, Cretan, Achaean, Asian and Dorian cultures.
During this period, the Greek language is formed. It was at this time that the great Homer created his immortal poems, filling them with all the colors of his era.
archaic period
This time is characterized by the intensive development of the country's economy, as well as its culture and art. City-polises are growing all over Greece, and Greek colonies are growing all over the Mediterranean. In addition, this era is associated with significant changes in the political system.
A striking event of that time was the Peloponnesian Union, which was headed by Sparta, famous for its strict laws of Spartan life, which, in fact, contributed to strengthening its position among other city-states.
The struggle for leadership between Athens and Sparta was further developed in the classical period.
classical era
The classical period in the history of Greece begins with a war with the Persians in 500 BC, which lasted more than 20 years. Only thanks to Athens, who created a maritime alliance and took command in the fight against the Persians, Greece managed to win the final victory in this cruel war.
Gradually, Athens strengthens its power, which allowed the inhabitants of the city to use significant resources to create their great masterpieces. The best master painters, architects and sculptors are invited to Athens to carry out Pericles' plan to turn the city into a "work of art". In addition, science, art and philosophy are developing rapidly. This time can rightfully be considered the "golden age" in the history of Athens.
Naturally, this situation did not suit Sparta, which was the reason for the beginning in 431 BC. The Peloponnesian War, which ended 27 years later with the complete defeat of Athens.
As a result of the war, Sparta became the most powerful policy in Greece, forcing other cities to comply with their military orders. And only with the unification of Greece under the hegemony of Macedonia began to subside internecine wars. So in 337 BC. Greece was united into the Macedonian Empire.
After the assassination of Philip II, the place of the ruler was taken by his son, Alexander, who created a powerful empire in just 9 years. His main goal was to forever end the centuries-old war between Greece and Persia. Hoping for peace agreements, he married Persian princesses - daughters of Greece's enemies. The successes of Alexander's numerous victories, about which legends were made, turned his head. He proclaimed himself the god Zeus-Amon, and did not want to stop there. But long years of battles exhausted his army and caused a wave of misunderstanding, both among the soldiers and among his entourage. Alexander died at the age of 33, leaving no heir.
Hellenistic period
Undoubtedly, the death of Alexander significantly accelerated the collapse of the great state, which had already begun.
The commanders of Alexander's army divided the empire among themselves: Greece and Macedonia went to Antipar, Thrace to Lysimachus, Asia Minor to Antigonus, Babylonia to Selevek, Egypt to Ptolemy.
From a new threat - the Roman aggressor - the first in 148 BC. Macedonia and Greece fell, and the kingdom of Ptolemy in Egypt, which lasted until the 30th year BC, resisted the invader the longest.
Roman period
It is noteworthy that several decades before the arrival of the Roman conquerors, the Greek rulers themselves invited the Roman liberators.
Similar to the Russian princes, who "used" the Golden Horde in internecine wars as a military force, the Greeks turned to the Roman legionnaires. For which, in fact, they paid when the Roman troops occupied Greece and Macedonia, announcing the creation of a province on their territory, which should be subordinate to the Roman governor.
It was the Romans who became the receivers of Greek culture, bringing it to our days. Elements of Roman architecture, no doubt, are in the nature of the masters Ancient Greece. Like most great civilizations, Roman civilization was self-destructive due to idleness, corruption and self-interest.
Byzantine period can be described as a period of formation of the traditions of Christianity, with the construction of numerous churches and monasteries throughout the country. The influence of the church on public life and the political system is growing.
Under Justinian I Byzantine Empire reaches the apogee of its development, becoming the most powerful power in the Mediterranean. Having existed until 1453, the great civilization fell under the onslaught of the Turkish invaders, passing into the power of the Ottoman Empire.
The Ottoman period in Greece is considered one of the most difficult in its history. Despite the fact that the Turks left the Greeks freedom of religion, the Greek people never stopped fighting for their independence.
Revolution
March 25, 1821 is considered the start date of the revolution. Orthodox Church when the revolutionary flag was raised by the patriarch. After a year of hard and bitter struggle, the National Assembly proclaimed the independence of Greece. However, internal disagreements in the country led to the outbreak of the Civil War of 1823-1825.
Two years later, in 1827, the first president of Greece was elected by the National Assembly, and Russia, England and France became the guarantors of the autonomous status of Greece.
In 1830, in accordance with the Adrianople Peace Treaty, Turkey recognized the independence of the Greek State.
new time
The period from 1830 to 1922 in Greece is considered a time of unrest and political unrest.
Under the influence of the leading world powers, which contributed to the acquisition of the long-awaited freedom, Greece was obliged to listen to their opinion. So, in 1862, George I, Prince of Denmark, became president of Greece, thanks to which the Ionian Islands, Thessaly, and part of Epirus were returned to the country.
At the beginning of the 20th century, during the Balkan War of 1912-13, Greece was once again expected to expand its historical territory, when the islands of the Aegean Sea, Crete, Epirus and Macedonia were annexed to it, and at the end of the First World War, Greece received Izmir and Thrace.
The year 1922 was marked by the so-called "Asia Minor catastrophe", when Greece had to forget about its imperial plans to liberate part of Asia Minor (along the coast) from Turkish rule and to regain its former glory.
Modernity
One of the main problems of this period was the arrival of a huge number of refugees from Asia Minor, which reached truly incredible proportions.
In October 1940, the Italian fascists invaded Epirus, but were defeated. The victory over the Nazi invaders who occupied Greece in 1941 became difficult. Thanks to the People's Liberation Army led by the Communists in 1944, it was possible to liberate the mainland of Greece.
1946-1949 - the time of the civil war.
Since 1952, a new stage of development begins in Greece. Joining NATO.
In 1967, a military coup took place, leading to the rule of a junta (military dictatorship). After 7 years, the time of the "black colonels" ended: the civilian government again came to power.
1922-1974 characterized by exacerbation of contradictions in society. During this period, there were 14 coups and coups. As a result, Greece was divided into several political camps: communists, military, monarchists and supporters of American policy.
And only by 1974 the country realized: only by uniting, Greece would be able to develop further as a full-fledged European state.
On December 8, the first truly democratic referendum was held, during which citizens voted against the monarchy. In Greece, the consolidation of democratic forces took place under the strict leadership of Kostas Karamanlis, who served as President of the Hellenic Republic from 1980 to 1995.
In 1981, Greece joins the European Economic Union, and the Socialist Party wins the local elections. Its famous leader, Andreas Papandreou, becomes the country's prime minister, remaining in power for the next 7 years.
Interesting Facts about Ancient Greece - sounds intriguing, especially for history buffs. Modern history owes much to ancient Greece. This civilization had a great impact on our world, and the development human history. It was in Greece that art, medicine, literature, and much more originated.
- Politics came to modern world from ancient Greece. When elections were held, people were paid for participating in them. It is for this reason that all the inhabitants of Greece actively participated in the elections. This is how democracy began.
- The ancient Greeks were not as fearless as history describes. They were very afraid of water, most of them could not swim. They sailed on ships only along the coast. On the basis of this fear, they had many water gods, whom they prayed for help and salvation if they were far from the coast.
- Ancient Greece - the birthplace of the theater. But the Greek theater was very different from the modern one. All performances were very tragic, they had a lot of death and suffering. Only men could play in the theater, they played both male and female roles as well. Only men could go to see performances.
- The Greeks had special armor, they were called "linothorax". Such armor was made of linen in several layers. This armor was really unique, it was excellent protection against sword and bow attacks.
- The ancient Greeks were absolutely not shy, they were not ashamed. Quite a long period of time Olympic Games running completely naked. This happened after one runner lost his loincloth and ran naked. And in ordinary life, they could afford to go naked.
- At the first Olympic Games there was only one competition - running..
- It was not customary for rich, wealthy Greek women to study and work. Their favorite pastime was to consider jewelry.
- Women who were educated, smart, were called "getters". Such women were not valued, they were not even wanted to be married.
- The ancient Greek philosopher Plato was an athlete. He participated in the Olympic Games, namely in the wrestling competition, and even won two times in them.
- Is our modern word school came from Greek . Only then in ancient times did it have a different meaning. For the Greeks, it was leisure and recreation. Benches were made in public places in Greece, they were made for people to relax, in such places there were always clusters of citizens. Over time, various speakers began to gather there, they had many listeners. In such conversations there were many disputes and discussions, and it became a permanent tradition. Thus, there was a need for educational institution, school.
- The Greeks were devout, believed in an afterlife. According to their beliefs, in order to get into the world of the dead, the shadow or soul of the deceased must pass through one of the rivers that surrounded the kingdom of Hades. The carrier of the shadows was called Charon. For his services, he took a fee from each shadow. So that the shadow could cover the costs of transportation, the relatives of the deceased put a coin under his tongue. If the coin was not placed, the soul of the deceased was doomed, she could not get into the realm of the dead.
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- There is a legend that all Greek goddesses had blue eyes.. And all Greek women basically had brown eyes. Women wanted to look at least a little like goddesses, and for this they poured into their eyes blue vitriol. From this, the eyes did acquire a blue tint, but this had a very negative effect on health.
- The name of the gemstone Amethyst was coined in Greece.. The meaning of this word is non-intoxicating. The ancient Greeks made vessels for wine from amethyst, and it was believed that if you drink from such a vessel, it is impossible to get drunk.
- In ancient Greece, the drachma was the national currency.. And what is most interesting, it was changed to the euro only in 2002, it turns out that the drachma held out as the main currency of civilization for almost 3000 years.
- Ancient Greece was not one single state. Each city of Greece had its own laws, rules, army. Very often conflicts and misunderstandings arose between cities.
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In the south of the Balkan Peninsula is Greece - the birthplace of the first European civilization. Greece is indented with mountain ranges. People here lived in small areas surrounded by mountains, but usually with access to the sea. Greece included all the adjacent islands, as well as the western coast of Asia Minor.
Greece is rich in minerals, which contributed to the development of crafts and trade. The land here was not very fertile. True, grapes and olive trees grow well. The abundance of islands, harbors and bays contributed to the development of navigation.
The legendary ancestor of the Greeks was the king Hellene. Therefore, they called themselves Hellenes, and their country - Hellas. Hellenes were not the first inhabitants of the south of the Balkans. In ancient times they lived here pelasgi, who were the first in Europe to master agriculture. Greek tribes then lived in the north, off the banks of the Danube. From about 2000 B.C. some of them began to move to the south. From the 12th century BC. all of Greece was inhabited only by Greeks.
Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. Archaeologists discovered the first traces of a manufacturing economy in Europe on the island of Crete, which in ancient times had connections with the countries of Western Asia. Crete also developed the oldest civilization in Europe. By the name of the mythical ruler Minos, it is called the Minoan. Initially, four small states arose on the island, the center of which was the palace of the ruler.
In the city Knossos the largest of the palaces was excavated, it is considered the palace of Minos. The palace had about three hundred rooms, its walls were decorated with frescoes. The most famous image of the game with the bulls: the young man makes intricate movements on the horns of the bull and on his back. Obviously, this was a rite associated with the worship of a bull - the main assistant of the ancient farmers.
Kings, their close associates, and servants lived in palaces. Farmers' settlements were located around the palaces. Cretan palaces were not surrounded by walls. The island was protected from invasions by a strong fleet. According to the myths, Minos created a huge fleet that dominated the east of the Mediterranean.
Myths and archaeological data say that the kings of Crete conquered the population of neighboring islands and mainland Greece (the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur). Starting from 1500 B.C. in the south of Greece, liberated from the power of Crete, its own civilization is taking shape. By city name Mycenae it is called Mycenaean. Creators of the Mycenaean civilization - Achaean Greeks - borrowed many of his achievements from Crete.
The centers of the Mycenaean states, as in Crete, were palaces. But they, unlike the Cretan ones, were heavily fortified. The Achaeans waged long wars among themselves. However, sometimes they created large associations. It was this association that led the famous trojan war, which ended with the capture of the rich city of Troy (Ilion) in Asia Minor around 1180 BC, at the very end of the Mycenaean time. These events are reflected in the poems Homer's "Iliad" And "Odyssey".
Dorian conquest. In the XII century. BC. tribes living in the north of the Balkan Peninsula Dorian Greeks rushed south and destroyed the Achaean states. Most of the Dorians returned, some settled in the Peloponnese. Greece after that again returned to the times of the birth of civilization. This zigzag in development had serious consequences.
In most Greek states, royal power eventually disappeared, and where it remained, it was severely limited. The country consisted of self-governing communities. The rulers were elected by full members of the community. A special type of city-state that has developed in Greece is called policy. Many features of communal self-government have been preserved in the policies.
Ancient Greek polis. The largest city-states in Greece are Athens And Sparta(from 200 to 350 thousand inhabitants). There were also very small policies in which only a few hundred people lived. The most common were policies with a population of 5-10 thousand people, including women, children, slaves and foreigners. There could be from 1 to 2 thousand full-fledged citizens (male warriors). The main part of the population lived in the city, which was the center of the policy.
Its citizens lived in the policy - members of the community and immigrants from other places (meteks). A small group of citizens were aristocrats (to know) - the owners of large plots of land, large workshops, ships. They had many slaves. The main population of the policy was demos (people) - small farmers, artisans and merchants.
The popular assembly of full-fledged citizens adopted laws and had supreme power in the policy. Officials were elected by the people's assembly for a fixed term.
Great Greek colonization. By the 8th century BC. Greece's population has grown exponentially. The infertile land of Hellas could not feed all the inhabitants. Because of this, a struggle broke out within the policies for land. From the 8th century BC. The "excess" population began to move to the colonies.
The Greeks either negotiated with the local tribes, who were called barbarians or conquered their own land. Barbarians, as a rule, traded profitably with the aliens. Mass migrations and the creation of colonies continued until the 6th century. BC. This time was called the period of the great Greek colonization. There was three directions of colonization: western(Sicily, Southern Italy, Southern France), northern(northern coast of the Aegean, Marmara and Black Seas), southern(Africa).
Many colonies grew rapidly and prospered. Grain, metals, slaves were brought from them to Hellas. Wine was exported to the colonies, olive oil, handicraft products. The exchange of goods contributed to the flourishing of crafts and agriculture in Greece. Acquaintance with other peoples enriched Greek culture. The main significance of colonization was to relieve social tension within the policies. But the Greeks failed to escape the internal struggle.
Tyranny. Starting from the 7th century BC. in many Greek cities, the struggle between the demos and the aristocracy intensifies. In a number of policies, power was in the hands of the leaders of the demos, who became the head of the state. They were called tyrants (rulers). Tyrants contributed to the development of crafts and trade. By their order, new ships were built and colonies were founded. However, the reign of tyrants remained in the memories as a dark time. Many tyrants have become famous for their cruelty. But the tyrants undermined the influence of the aristocrats.
Athens. Athens was the center of the Attica peninsula, united into a single state by the legendary king Theseus. There were no kings in Athens in ancient times. In the VIII-VII centuries. BC. power in the policy belonged to aristocrats who owned vast lands and turned impoverished fellow citizens into slavery for debts. As the demos strengthened, its struggle for land and for the abolition of debt slavery flared up. This struggle weakened the Athenian state and its army.
In 594 BC to reconcile the parties archon(ruler) was elected Solon, who was respected by both aristocrats and demos. He forbade debt slavery, freed the Athenian slaves. Land plots were returned to debtors. Citizens Solon divided into four digits according to the size of the property. The place of a person in the army and his political rights depended on the category.
The next stage of the struggle between the demos and the aristocrats is connected with the tyranny of Peisistratus, who carried out transformations for the development of the economy and in the interests of the demos. In 510 BC. e. the tyrant Gipiy was overthrown - the son of Pisisitrat, who, unlike his father, oppressed the people. Soon the leader of the demos became the ruler of Athens. Cleisthenes. He divided the entire territory of Attica into 10 regions, each of which consisted of three regions located in different parts of the peninsula. Cleisthenes created Council of Five Hundred. It equally included representatives of all 10 regions, regardless of their property status. The council was replenished annually by lot with citizens who had reached the age of 30. The Council of Five Hundred dealt with current affairs and prepared them for discussion at the people's assembly. The people's assembly elected all officials, including strategists who were commanders of the army and fleet, and were also the actual rulers of the policy.
The flourishing of democracy in Athens, and with it the rise of their economy and power, are associated with the name of the first strategist Pericles(444 - 429 BC). Under him, payment for the service of officials was introduced, which gave poor citizens the opportunity to engage in politics. After Pericles, a fee was even introduced for attending a public assembly.
Sparta. The area in the southeast of the Peloponnese Laconica (Lake-demon) was conquered by the Dorians, who built their city of Sparta here. Part of the local population was enslaved and became known as helots. The Spartan conquerors were forbidden to engage in any business other than military. The land allotment of the Spartan was processed by several helot families. They delivered a strictly defined amount of products to their master. The Spartans turned their state into a military camp. Later they conquered the neighboring region of Messenia.
Approximately in the VIII-VII centuries. BC. Sparta introduced the so-called the laws of Lycurgus. According to them, everyone (including kings and elders) lived the same way, wore the same coarse clothes, had the same dwellings. Gathering at a common table, the men ate simple food. Gold and silver coins were banned.
The supreme body of power was the People's Assembly - apella. Apella laws were not discussed, but only accepted or rejected. Played a major role in management council of elders(old people) - gerusia. 28 people over 60 years of age were elected by Apella to the positions of gerontes, two kings received power by inheritance. The kings led the army. Sparta was the most powerful militarily polis of Hellas. The education of warriors was the main task of the state. Sparta is an example oligarchic polis, where power was held by the aristocracy.
From the second half of the VI century. BC. Sparta became the center Peloponnesian Union. By the middle of the 5th c. BC e. this union included almost all the policies of the Peloponnese and a number of policies of Central Greece.
Greco-Persian Wars. In the VI century. BC. The Persians conquered the Greek city-states of Asia Minor. In 500 BC an uprising broke out in these cities, but King Darius I suppressed it. Athens sent armed aid to the rebels. For this, in 490 BC. Darius's troops landed in Attica near the town of Marathon. During a fierce battle, the Athenians, led by Miltiades managed to defeat the superior forces of the enemy.
10 years later, Xerxes, son of Darius I, moved a huge army and fleet (Phoenician) to Greece. Most of the city-states, led by Athens and Sparta, united against a common danger. IN Thermopylae Gorge in northern Greece, a small force of the Hellenes, led by the Spartan king Leonidas, held back the advance of Xerxes for several days. After the death of Leonidas, the Persians occupied Central Greece.
The Greek fleet, in which half of the ships were Athenian, stood at the island Salamis. September 28, 480 BC Here a decisive naval battle took place. In the narrow strait, most of the ships of Xerxes died not in battle, but in collisions with each other. The remnants of the fleet and most of the troops, led by Xerxes, left Greece. The decisive land battle took place near a small town Plataea in 479 BC The allied Greek militia lured the Persians into a trap and destroyed them. On the same day, the Greeks defeated the Persian fleet of Cape Mycale. Greco-Persian wars continued until 449 BC. The Persians recognized the independence of all Asia Minor policies.
As a result of the victory in the Greco-Persian wars, Athens was especially strengthened, which stood at the head the Athenian Maritime Union, united mostly democratic policies. Over time, the Athenians began to interfere in the internal life of the allies. The cash contributions of policies to the treasury of the union turned into a tribute to Athens.
After the war in Greece, the number of slaves increased significantly. Slave labor was widely used V craft, mining.
Policy crisis. The unity of Hellas was short-lived. In 431 BC. e. broke out Peloponnesian War between the Peloponnesian and Athenian maritime alliances. Fierce hostilities ended in 404 BC. victory for Sparta. The Athenian Maritime League was dissolved. Greece was dominated by Sparta. The Spartans interfered in the affairs of other policies, established oligarchic rule everywhere. In response, a coup took place in Thebes against the Spartans and their local henchmen, the oligarchs. Epaminondas was at the head of the uprising. In 371 BC in the battle of Leuctra, he defeated the previously invincible army of Sparta. During the wars, policies mutually weakened each other.
At the same time in the IV century. BC. within the city-states themselves, phenomena occur that are called policy crisis. As the economy develops, inequality among citizens increases. Many lost their livelihoods and went bankrupt. It has become a common occurrence Mercenary: the militias of citizens are replaced by warriors hired for money.
Macedonian conquest of Greece. To the north of Greece was Macedonia, where a population related to the Greeks lived. In the middle of IV and. BC. king ascended the Macedonian throne Philip//, an admirer of Hellenic scholarship, an outstanding diplomat And commander. Philip created the famous Macedonian phalanx, turning his army into a formidable force.
Many in Greece hoped that Philip would put things in order in their country and stop the strife. Other Greeks, led by an Athenian orator Demosthenes, called for a unification of forces to fight Macedonia. The decisive battle between the Greeks and the Macedonians took place in 338 BC. near the town of Chaeronea. The Greeks were defeated, Hellas fell under the rule of Philip. The king began preparations for war with Persia, but was killed in 336 BC.
Campaigns of Alexander the Great. Philip's son becomes king of Macedonia Alexander- great commander antiquities. He suppressed the anti-Macedonian uprising that broke out in Greece and continued to prepare for war with Persia. His campaign in Asia began at the end of March 334 BC. The first battle took place on the river Granik. The Persian army did not resist for long. Alexander marched through Asia Minor, capturing one city after another. The Persian king Darius III gave a battle on the Mediterranean coast near the town of Iss. In the midst of the battle, Alexander, seeing that the Persian king was left almost without protection, ordered to attack him. Darius barely escaped.
Almost all the Phoenician cities submitted to Alexander without resistance. Only Tire was taken after a long siege. Soon the army moved to Egypt. Here Alexander was hailed as a liberator from the Persian yoke, the priests proclaimed him pharaoh. The decisive battle of the Macedonian-Persian War took place on October 1, 331 BC. near the village Gaugamela in Mesopotamia. Darius had twenty times more strength than Alexander. The Persians were almost victorious, but Alexander again delivered his main blow to where Darius was, who again fled. The victory was for the soldiers of Alexander. In the capital of Persia, they captured countless treasures. Darius soon died.
However, not all the lands of the Persian state recognized the power of the new conqueror. With great difficulty managed to conquer Central Asia. In 327 BC. e. Alexander led his army into the territory of India, which was not part of Persia. On the eastern bank of the Indus River, the conquerors defeated the army of King Por. However, when it became clear to the Macedonians that a war with the state of Magadha was ahead of them, they rebelled. Alexander was forced in 325 BC. e. to turn back.
In 324 BC Alexander made Babylon his capital. He planned new campaigns, but in June 323 BC. The 32-year-old conqueror suddenly fell ill and died.
Hellenistic states. After the death of Alexander, the struggle for his legacy began between the generals and the relatives of the king. The collapse of the state was inevitable. The conquered lands were too large. Alexander did not even restore the order of government that existed under the Persians.
The states created by Alexander's generals were not strong either. However, some of them lasted quite a long time. They are called Hellenistic kingdoms. Both the Greeks and the Macedonians, as well as numerous local peoples, lived in these kingdoms. In the Hellenistic states, a very interesting culture arose, combining Greek and Eastern features.
Egypt was one of the first isolated possessions of Alexander the Great. His satrap from 323 BC. was the Macedonian commander Ptolemy Lag. In 305 BC he proclaimed himself king. All subsequent Egyptian kings also bore the name Ptolemy. Ptolemy I also captured Palestine and part of Syria, his son Ptolemy II continued the conquest and annexed vast territories in Asia Minor. Ptolemy I expanded and beautified the city of Alexandria founded by Alexander the Great, which became the capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom. The highest government positions were occupied by the Greeks, but the Egyptians were also involved in the service.
The largest Hellenistic kingdom was founded by the commander of Alexander the Great Seleucus. Seleucid state included Iran, Mesopotamia, Syria, part of Asia Minor and India. True, Indian possessions were quickly lost. The Seleucid kingdom was very warlike.
One Greek is worth a thousand barbarians. (Alexander the Great).
Modern European (and not only European, by the way) civilization very much owes its development to ancient Greece. This relatively small state has made a huge contribution to global culture: medicine, politics, art, literature, theater. To this day, ancient Greek myths are a source of inspiration for many people, studied and retold. And the famous ancient Greek theater, which became the prototype of the modern theater, is now being reconstructed again, modern people are trying to revive a piece of ancient Greece through theatrical art. And all this is only a small part of the great Greek heritage.
History of ancient Greece
The phrase "ancient Greece" is associated by many with high ancient culture, wise Athenian philosophers, brave Spartan warriors and majestic temples. In fact, ancient Greece is not one, but several civilizations at once, which developed and transformed over the centuries. Among them are:
- Minoan civilization that existed in early period development of ancient Greece, for example, the famous legend of Theseus and the Minotaur is associated with it, which probably has some real historical basis under it.
- Achaean civilization, it is about this period that Homer writes in his epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey.
- Hellenic civilization, in fact, the period of the highest flowering of ancient Greek civilization.
Also, the territory of ancient Greece itself is conventionally divided into three parts: Northern, Middle and Southern. In southern Greece, there was a warlike and harsh Sparta, the heart of ancient Greece - Athens, located in Central Greece, while Thessaly and Macedonia were in the North. (The latter, however, was not considered “true Greek”, the Macedonians were rather half-Greeks-half-barbarians, it’s true that they had a significant role in the history of ancient Greece itself, but see about this later).
As for the history of ancient Greece, its historians conditionally divide it into several periods, and then we will examine in detail the main periods of ancient Greece.
Early period
The emergence of ancient Greece originates in ancient times, at a time when the ancient Greeks themselves were the same barbarians. Pelasgian tribes inhabiting the Greek territory for 3 millennia BC. e. were expelled from there by the tribes of the Achaeans who came from the north. The Achaeans, who created the Achaean civilization, were in turn destroyed by the Dorians, who were at a culturally lower level of development. After the death of the Achaean civilization, the so-called "dark age" of the ancient world begins. Like the other "dark age" that came after the collapse, it is characterized by the decline of culture, the absence of written sources that can tell us about this historical period.
Only Homer shed some light on him, however, for a long time, serious historians considered the events described in the Iliad about the Trojan War to be only an invention of the poet, until someone, the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, unearthed the real Troy. True, disputes about the reliability of Troy excavated by him are still ongoing, we have a separate interesting one on this topic on our website, but for now we are returning to the history of Greece.
Archaic period
It is the Archaic period of ancient Greece, characterized by a new flowering of Greek civilization. It was during this period that Greek policies began to appear - independent city-states, among which Athens, Thebes and Sparta gradually rise. Athens became the greatest cultural center of ancient Greece; it was here that many outstanding philosophers, scientists, and poets subsequently lived. Also, Athens was the stronghold of ancient Greek democracy, the power of the people ("demos" - in Greek means "people", "kratos" - power) and the birthplace of this form of government.
Of course, ancient Greek democracy was different from modern democracy, for example, slaves and women could not take part in voting and public meetings (it was not soon before the advent of feminism). For the rest, Athenian democracy was precisely the most real democracy in its traditional sense, any free citizen had not only the right, but also the obligation to participate in popular assemblies, the so-called ecclesias, at which all important political and economic decisions were made.
Popular meetings in Athens.
Sparta, on the other hand, was the complete opposite of Athens, a military state, where, of course, there was no question of any democracy, Sparta was ruled by two kings at once, one of whom commanded the army and went on military campaigns at the head of the army, the second was in charge of the economy in his absence . Each Spartan man was a professional warrior who spent all his time improving military skills, as a result, the Spartan army was the strongest in Greece at that time. And the feat of 300 Spartans, who held back the advance of a large army, has been glorified more than once both in art and in cinema. The economy of Sparta was completely based on slaves - helots, who often rebelled against their masters.
Thebes, another great city of ancient Greece, was also a significant cultural and economic center, which also had great political influence. The power in Thebes belonged to a group of wealthy citizens, the so-called oligarchs (yes, this is a word of Greek origin that is familiar in our everyday life), who, on the one hand, were afraid of the spread of Athenian democracy, but on the other, they also did not accept the severity of the Spartan way of life. As a result, in constant conflicts between Athens and Sparta, Thebes supported one side or the other.
classical period
The classical period of ancient Greece is characterized by the highest flowering of its culture, philosophy, art, it was during this period that such outstanding personalities as Solon and Pericles (outstanding politicians who strengthened democracy in Athens), Phidias (creator of the Parthenon in Athens and many other great buildings), Aeschylus (a talented playwright, "father of drama"), Socrates and Plato (we think these philosophers need no introduction).
However, with the highest development of culture in this period, ancient Greece also faces great trials, namely the invasion of the Persians, who seek to enslave the freedom-loving Greeks. In the face of a formidable enemy, even such previously irreconcilable rivals as Athens and Sparta united and acted as a united front, pan-Greek patriotism took up over small-town quarrels. As a result, after a series of outstanding victories (the Battle of Marathon, the Battle of Thermopylae) over the superior forces of the Persians, the Greeks managed to defend their independence.
True, after the victory over the Persians during the Greco-Persian wars, the Greeks again returned to their former squabbles, which soon escalated so much that they resulted in the great Peleponian War between Athens and Sparta. And on both sides, the two policies supported their allies, lasting 30 years, the war ended with the victory of Sparta. True, victory did not bring much joy to anyone, the brilliant Greek civilization again fell into decay and desolation during the war years, and the Greek policies themselves weakened so much during the war that soon the energetic Macedonian king Philip, the father of the great conqueror Alexander the Great, conquered all of Greece without much difficulty. .
Well, already his son, as we know, having rallied all the Greeks, he himself attacked Persia, so successfully that he reached with his invincible Greek phalanxes at that time. From this moment begins the Hellenistic period of the history of ancient Greece.
Hellenistic period
It is the final period of the heyday of Greek civilization, the moment of its greatest zenith, when the power (and at the same time the culture) of the Greeks, thanks to the energy of one Macedonian, stretched from Greece proper to distant India, where a unique Greco-Indian culture was even created, manifested, for example, in statues Buddha made in Greek style, antique sculpture. (such amazing cultural syncretism).
The Bamiyan Buddha statue, made in the antique style, unfortunately has not survived to our time.
After the death of Alexander the Great, his vast empire collapsed as quickly as it was conquered, Greek influence nevertheless continued to persist for some time, but gradually began to decline over time. The situation was complicated by the invasion of Greece itself by warlike Galatian tribes.
And finally, with the rise of Rome and the appearance of Roman legionnaires on Greek soil, the final end of Greek civilization came, which was completely absorbed by the Roman Empire. The Romans, as we know, in many respects sorted out Greek culture for themselves and became its worthy successors.
Culture of ancient Greece
It was in ancient Greece that the first philosophical concepts were formulated, which laid down the fundamental knowledge about the universe, which is also used by modern science.
The Greek historian Herodotus literally became the "father of history", it is his historical works that are models for the works of the next generations of historians. The Greek physician Hippocrates became the "father of medicine", his famous "Hippocratic oath" to this day expresses the moral and ethical principles of the doctor's behavior. The playwright Aeschylus, already mentioned by us, became the creator of theatrical drama, his contribution to theatrical art and the development of the theater is simply enormous. As well as the enormous contributions of the Greeks Pythagoras and Archimedes to the development of mathematics. And the philosopher Aristotle can generally be called the "father of science" in the broadest sense of the word, since it was Aristotle who formulated the fundamental principles scientific knowledge peace.
It looks like the ancient Greek theater, which emerged from the religious mysteries, it soon became one of the favorite places of entertainment for the ancient Greeks. The theater buildings themselves in ancient Greece were an open area with a round structure for the choir and a stage for the actors. All ancient Greek theaters had excellent acoustics, so even the audience sitting in the back rows could hear all the replicas (there were no microphones yet).
The ancient Greek Olympic Games, during which even all wars were interrupted, became, in fact, the foundation for the development of modern sports and the modern Olympic Games, which are just the same revival of the ancient Greek sports tradition.
The Greeks also had many interesting inventions in military affairs, for example, their famous phalanx, representing a close-knit infantry combat formation. The Greek phalanx could easily win (and won) victories over the numerically superior, but not organized Persians, Celts and other barbarians.
Art of ancient Greece
Ancient Greek art is represented, first of all, by beautiful sculpture and architecture, painting. Harmony, balance, orderliness and beauty of forms, clarity and proportion, these are the basic principles of Greek art, which considers a person as the measure of all things, represents him in physical and moral perfection.
The famous Venus de Milo, the creation of an unknown Greek sculptor. Depicting the goddess of love and beauty, Venus, she first of all conveys the primordial beauty of the female body, this is the whole sculpture of ancient Greece and all its art.
The architecture of ancient Greece was especially famous thanks to Phidias, a sculptor and architect, the Parthenon, a temple dedicated to the patroness of Athens, the goddess of war and wisdom, Athena, his greatest creation.
But besides the Parthenon, the Greeks built many other equally beautiful temples, many of which, unfortunately, have not survived to our times or have been preserved in the form of ruins.
As for painting, it was presented in ancient Greece in skillful drawings on Greek vases, in the form of vase painting. The ancient Greeks achieved great skill in decorating and painting vases and amphoras.
Painted Greek amphora. It is worth noting that the ancient Greeks painted the most different types earthenware. And the inscriptions on the vases left by some vase painters have become an additional source of historical information.
Religion in ancient Greece
The religion of ancient Greece and its mythology are perhaps the best studied, and the names of many Greek gods and goddesses, led by the supreme god Zeus, are widely known. Interestingly, the Greeks endowed their gods with completely human qualities and even the vices inherent in people, such as anger, envy, revenge, adultery, and so on.
Also, in addition to the gods, there was a cult of demigod heroes, such as, for example, Hercules, son supreme god Zeus and an ordinary mortal woman. Often, many Greek rulers declared that they were descended from one or another semi-divine hero.
Interestingly, unlike many other religions, the ancient Greeks were not at all characterized by religious fanaticism (“If Alexander so wants to be a god, then let him be,” the Spartans once calmly remarked in response to Alexander the Great’s claim about his divine origin), nor a special reverence for the gods. Communicating with their gods, the Greeks never knelt, but talked with them, as if with equal people.
And the Greek temples dedicated to this or that god, in addition to their ritual functions, had another very important purpose, they were the most real banks of antiquities, that is, places where various Greek oligarchs and nobles kept their acquired by hook or by crook values.
- Everyone is familiar with the word "idiot" of ancient Greek origin. The ancient Greeks called an idiot a citizen of the polis who did not take part in public meetings and voting, that is, a person who was not interested in politics in our modern sense, who removed himself from political vicissitudes.
- In ancient Greece, there was a special institution of hetaerae, which in no case should be confused with prostitutes. Getters, like Japanese geishas, were beautiful and at the same time educated women, capable of maintaining an intellectual conversation, and versed in poetry, music, art, with a broad outlook, serving for the enjoyment of men not only in physical sense but also in every other conceivable sense. Many Greek hetaerae gathered philosophers, poets, scientists around them, a vivid example of this is the hetaera Aspasia former mistress Pericles, the young Socrates was even in love with Aspasia at one time.
- The ancient Greeks called all other representatives of less cultured peoples, so to speak, “barbarians” and it was they who introduced this term (“barbarian” from ancient Greek translates as “foreigner, stranger”). Later, the Romans also became infected with this Greek xenophobia.
- Although the Greeks treated with disdain any Scythians and Germans, calling them "barbarians", in turn they themselves learned a lot from the more developed ancient Egyptian civilization and culture. So, for example, Pythagoras in his youth studied with the Egyptian priests. The historian Herodotus also visited Egypt and talked a lot with the Egyptian priests. “You are Greeks, like little children,” the local priests told him.
Ancient Greece video
And in conclusion, an interesting documentary about ancient Greece.
The history of Ancient Greece is one of the most exciting, majestic and interesting. It is customary to divide the entire history of ancient Greece into five main periods: the Aegean or Crete-Mycenaean (3-2 thousand BC), Homeric (11-9 centuries BC), archaic (8-4 centuries BC). BC), classical (5th-4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic (second half of the 4th to the middle of the 1st century BC). In addition, the first three eras are often grouped under the common name of the preclassic period. In this case, the entire history of Ancient Greece is divided into three large main periods: preclassical, classical and Hellenistic.
The settlement of the territory of Greece by humans is evidenced by archaeological excavations that discovered Paleolithic sites in the territory from Macedonia to Elis, dating back to the period of the Middle Paleolithic (about 100-40 thousand BC). The skull of a Neanderthal man, found on the peninsula of Halkidiki, dates back to this time. During the Neolithic period (about the middle of the 7th millennium BC), the population of Greece mastered agriculture, was engaged in cattle breeding, leading a sedentary lifestyle. During this period, the tribal system, which took shape back in the era of the Middle Paleolithic, reached its full development.
Aegean period (3-2 thousand BC)
It was to this time that the emergence of the first early class societies dates back. The history of Greece of this era is chronologically divided into early, middle and late periods. Differences in the cultural traditions of individual parts of Greece made it possible to identify geographical options: the culture of Crete was called the Minoan culture, mainland Greece - the Helladic culture, the islands of the Aegean - the Cycladic culture.
Early Bronze Age (about 28th - about 21st centuries BC). This period is marked by a special rise of insular Greece. By the middle of the 3rd millennium, on many islands (on Syros, Paros, Melos, Kythnos, Amorgos, etc.), extensive mining of silver, lead and copper and the manufacture of metal utensils, weapons, tools, jewelry and ritual items were developed. At the same time, there was significant progress in pottery and building crafts. Navigation in the 2nd half of the 3rd millennium connected the entire coast of the Aegean Sea. The first cities appeared: Poliochni on about. Lemnos, Agios Kosmas in Attica.
The fortified settlement with a palace (the so-called “House of Tiles”) on a hilltop in Lerna (Argolis) reflects the growth of the power of tribal kings on the coast of southern Greece. In the rest of mainland Greece, the tribal system remained in full force. Between 2200-2000 tribal wars and movements destroyed a number of prosperous centers on the islands and the mainland. Ethnic composition The population in the 3rd millennium is complicated: among the tribes, at first the Pelasgians predominated, later they were pushed aside and partly assimilated by the proto-Greek tribes. Among the proto-Greek tribes, the Achaeans and Ionians intensified.
Middle Bronze Age (about 20-17 centuries BC). This period was marked by a significant progress of Crete in the economic and social life. Small early slave-owning states arose here (Knoss, Festus, Agia Triada, Mallia). Cretan writing evolved rapidly: from pictographic to hieroglyphic (23rd-17th centuries). Around the 18th century a new system was developed - the so-called. syllabary A. Having created a large fleet, the Cretans subjugated a number of islands in the Aegean Sea. Wide trade and diplomatic relations with Egypt and the states of Western Asia provided Crete with primacy in the Aegean basin.
The internal history of mainland Georgia in the 20th–17th centuries. characterizes the relatively slow development that contributed to the stability of communal relations. Only since the 17th century. the formation of the early slave-owning states of Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, and others began. The burials of royal families discovered in Mycenae in large well-shaped (so-called shaft) graves contained a huge amount of precious things (weapons, jewelry, golden masks, etc.), testifying to the strengthening of the importance of the power of the Achaean dynasts already in the middle of the 17th - the end of the 16th centuries.
Late Bronze Age (about 16th - about 12th centuries BC). The rise of the Cretan states continued. In the so-called new palace period (about 1700-1450), the palaces of Knossos and Phaistos were rebuilt and expanded, and the palace in Kato-Zakro was re-erected. Cities grew, external relations expanded. The maritime dominion (thalassocracy) of the Cretans of this time was preserved in the memory of the Greeks many centuries later. Around 1470, a tectonic catastrophe on about. Thera caused a devastating earthquake in Crete. The destruction of cities and villages, the death of the population and the fleet - all these circumstances determined the desolation of the island. At Knossos the palace was rebuilt; until about 1380, a small state remained here.
Mainland Greece reached its highest peak in the 16th and 13th centuries. Progress in agriculture and crafts led to an increase in population. Civil strife between neighbors, defensive and military alliances of dynasts are characteristic of the history of that time. This was reflected in a rich legendary tradition and in the epic heritage of the Achaeans. The Mycenaean culture of the Achaeans influenced neighboring countries, including Egypt. The fleets of the kings of Iolkos, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and other states allowed the Achaeans to conduct an extensive overseas trade in handicrafts, which were sometimes produced specifically for export. For 15-14 centuries. characteristic is the wide distribution of Achaean products to the East (to the Troad and other regions of Asia Minor, to Cyprus, to Phenicia, Syria, Egypt) and to the West (to Sicily and southern Italy). The complication of the state life of the Achaeans led to the development of writing: having adapted the Cretan letter to their dialect, the Achaeans created a more perfect, so-called. syllabary.
Homeric period (XI-IX centuries BC)
In the Homeric period, further formation of class societies took place. From the northern regions, new Greek tribes of the Dorians invaded, occupying part of the land in Central and Southern Greece. Only Athens was able to maintain its independence, and part of the population fled there from the defeated Achaean states of the Peloponnese. The invasion of the Dorian tribes, who still lived in the conditions of the tribal system, led to the rapid disintegration of the Achaean states and the revival of tribal relations in Greek society. The basis for the further development of the productive forces was the gradual spread of iron tools and weapons. The Dorians inherited from the Achaeans and Cretans a plow, wheeled carts, sailing ships, presses, a potter's wheel, other tools, and the rudiments of architecture (especially temple and fortress architecture).
After the Dorian conquest, small independent communities formed in Greece; the basilei were in power, the tribal nobility strengthened everywhere. In many areas, family ownership of land became the basis of land ownership. The conquered local population became the property of the conquering families, which broke up into large family communities. The process of enslavement of the local population proceeded differently. In Sparta, the members of the community of conquerors - the Spartans - were opposed by the perieks - the former indigenous population of the territory of Sparta, conquered and pushed back to the borders of Laconia; Perieki retained limited self-government, engaged in crafts and trade. Dr. the category of the dependent population in Sparta was the helots—the agricultural population of Messenia and other regions subjugated by the Spartans; they were considered the property of the state and were attached to the land plots of the Spartans. Categories of dependent population similar to the helots existed in Thessaly (penestes), on Crete (clarotes), and in other regions of Greece. In Athens, the enslavement of farmers took place through debt dependence and the concentration of land in the hands of the tribal nobility, the Eupatrides.
By the 9th c. Greek tribes settled: the Aeolians settled in Northern Greece, the Dorians in Middle Greece and the eastern part of the Peloponnese, the Ionians in Attica, and the Achaean tribes, which retained their independence, were pushed back to Arcadia and Achaia. The most important event of this period was the beginning of the Greek colonization of the islands and coast of Asia Minor: the northern regions were settled by Aeolians, central regions(Ionia) - Ionians, southern - Dorians.
The emergence and development of the polis system (8th-6th centuries BC). The further distribution of iron tools led to the separation of artisans. The separation of handicrafts from agriculture meant a transition to a wider exchange, production for the market, and the development of cities.
Archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC)
For the cities of Greece, it became vital to establish regular trade relations and supply the population of the cities with raw materials and the missing foodstuffs. Landless peasants accumulated in the cities. At the same time, the need for slaves increased. The withdrawal of the colonies became an economic necessity. It was caused primarily by the class struggle within the Greek city-states and was carried out in order to mitigate sharp social contradictions. In the middle of the 8th c. the first colony of cities about. Euboea - Kumy (in Italy). The heyday of colonization falls on the 7th-6th centuries. Greek colonies spread along the northern coast of the Aegean Sea, the eastern coast of Sicily, the coast of the Gulf of Tarentum in Italy and advanced to the Black Sea coast. Only Miletus founded 75 colonies on the Black Sea.
As a result, Greek trade already in the 6th c. acquired an international character; handicraft products of the Greeks were widely sold both in the western and eastern markets. Slaves entered Greece; it imported grain and other foodstuffs, raw materials, and luxury items. Coins borrowed by the Greeks from the Lydians in the 7th century BC became widespread. Some cities turned into pan-Greek religious centers (Delphi, Olympia). The growth in the number of slaves in the cities strengthened the position of slave owners associated with trade, crafts and money management. However, the main means of production - land and political power still remained in the hands of the tribal nobility, whose economic power was based on family and tribal ownership of land and the enslavement and enslavement of small farmers.
The struggle of the demos against the tribal aristocracy and debt slavery is the main feature of the period of the 8th-6th centuries. As a result of a stubborn struggle, demos achieved the abolition of debt bondage in some cities of Greece (for example, in Athens as a result of the reforms of Solon 594/593 BC). However, it was possible to suppress the resistance of the tribal nobility to the implementation of reforms only with the help of violence. Such a force was tyranny - the sole power established through armed struggle and based on the movement of the peasant poor and the support of merchants and artisans.
As a result of the reforms of tyrants, the economic and political privileges of the tribal aristocracy were eliminated. In the period of 8-6 centuries. BC e. a special form of socio-economic and political organization of ancient Greek societies was formed - the polis (city-state) as a collective of free citizens who opposed slaves and other categories of dependent population (clarots, penests, helots, etc.), as well as foreigners - meteks. Belonging to the policy provided a collective of full-fledged citizens with the right to own land and slaves.
Depending on the degree of victory of farmers and artisans over the tribal nobility, the constitution of the policy was either oligarchic (for example, in Sparta, Crete) or democratic (for example, in Athens). By the end of the 6th c. BC e. slavery spread widely in some highly economically developed policies (Corinth, Athens), where slaves and slave owners became antagonistic classes. At the same time, in a number of other cities (Sparta, cities of Crete, Argos, and others), along with slavery, remnants of the tribal system were preserved for a long time. In Central and Southern Greece, there were still tribal agricultural communities in which a natural agricultural economy and a tribal system were preserved (Phocis, Aetolia, Acarnania, and others).
A struggle broke out between the policies, caused by various economic and political reasons. At the end of the 6th c. the first major association of cities arose - the Peloponnesian Union under the leadership of Sparta, created to unite the military forces of the Peloponnese (except Argos) and to organize assistance to Sparta during the uprisings of the helots.
Classical period (5th - 4th centuries BC)
5th-4th centuries BC e. in the history of Greece - the period of the highest economic, political and cultural flourishing of the polis system. The economic system of economically advanced trade and craft policies was mainly determined by the labor of slaves used in craft (slave workshops), in mines, and also sporadically in agriculture. Small peasant farming and small free handicrafts played a significant role. The heyday of Greece is associated with the rise of Athens as a result of the victory of Athenian democracy in the Greco-Persian wars (500-449) and the creation of the Delian Union led by Athens (or the First Athenian Maritime Union) from the states located on the islands of the Aegean Sea and its northern, eastern and western coasts.
The time of the greatest power of Athens, the greatest democratization of the political system and the flowering of culture falls on the years of the reign of Pericles (443-429). However, this period was relatively short. The transformation of the allies into subjects, the transfer of all important cases to the Athenian court, the restriction of freedom of trade, the collection of taxes - foros, punitive expeditions, the removal of cleruchia on the territory of the allies caused the desire of the latter to be released, especially from the oligarchic circles. At the same time, a conflict of a foreign policy nature was also brewing: the struggle of Athens and Corinth for trade routes to the west, the struggle of Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece. All these contradictions led to the Peloponnesian War (431–404), which engulfed most of the Greek policies.
The war revealed all the fragility of the Athenian alliance and ended with the complete defeat of Athens. They lost almost all external possessions, the fleet was transferred to Sparta. The period of Spartan hegemony in Greece began.
Not only Athens, but also many Greek cities came out of the war weakened. Strengthening property contrasts caused sharp clashes and armed struggle within the policies. In each city, two camps formed: the poor and the rich. Further development slavery, exchange, crafts, money management began to undermine the foundations of the state community (polis), the economic base of which was small and medium landownership.
The accumulation of money in the hands of rich metecs destroyed the closed framework of the polis economy. The ruin of the peasants and artisans created in the policies the poor, who did not find application in the economic sphere. The military power of the policy was also undermined: the people's militia in a number of policies replaced detachments of mercenaries, since war became the only possible profession for the poor. The constant internecine wars of the policies further strengthened their plight.
In 395, the Corinthian War unleashed by Sparta (395-387) began; in the war, Sparta was opposed by a coalition of states (Athens, Corinth, Thebes, etc.). The weakening of the policies and the decline of the financial economy at that time made all the policies dependent on rich Persia, which actually dictated the conditions of peace to the warring parties (the royal, or Antalkid peace): Persia restored its power over the cities of Asia Minor, unions of cities, surveillance and control were prohibited in Greece beyond the Greek cities, they were transferred to Sparta, whose policy was expressed in violations of the autonomy of states, in reprisals against democrats, and the establishment of oligarchic orders.
Sparta became the main enemy of Greek freedom and independence. A Spartan garrison was brought into Thebes, but the Theban democrats in 379, under the leadership of Pelopidas and Epaminondas, expelled the Spartans and restored the army that had existed in the 6th century. Boeotian Union. In 378/377, the Second Athenian Maritime Alliance arose to fight Sparta, which included Thebes. In 371, at the Battle of Leuctra, the Thebans inflicted a defeat on the Spartan troops, which dispelled the myth of Sparta's invincibility. After the death of the Theban commander Epaminondas in the Battle of Mantinea (362), the brief period of the rise of Thebes ended, which was facilitated by the hostile attitude towards Thebes of Athens, frightened by their strengthening. However, the attempt of Athens to establish in the Second Athenian Maritime Union the orders that existed in the First Union was rebuffed by the allies and led to the Allied War of 357-355 BC. e., ending with the collapse of the union.
During this period, a new power arose in northern Greece - Macedonia. By 346, the Macedonian king Philip II conquered first Thessaly, then Phocis, Chalkidike and the Thracian coast. In Athens and other cities of Greece, there was a struggle between the pro-Macedonian (Isocrates, Aeschines, Philocrates, etc.) and anti-Macedonian (Demosthenes, Hyperides, etc.) parties. Through the efforts of Demosthenes against Macedonia, a coalition of Greek cities was created, which, however, suffered a complete defeat in the battle of Chaeronea (338), where, according to Lycurgus, one of the leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, "together with the bodies of the fallen, the freedom of the Greeks was also buried." The congress in Corinth in 338-337, convened by Philip II, finally formalized the subordination of Greece to Macedonia, it announced the creation of a union of Greek states headed by Macedonia. In all policies, an oligarchic regime was established, supported by Macedonian garrisons.
Hellenistic period (late 4th BC - mid 1st century AD)
The Battle of Chaeronea and the conquests of the Greco-Macedonian army in the east under the command of Alexander the Great opened the Hellenistic period. The monarchy of Alexander the Great collapsed immediately after his death (323). The long struggle of the Diadochi and their successors, the epigones, led to the creation of a number of independent Hellenistic states (the largest of them were the Seleucid, Ptolemaic and Macedonian monarchies).
Greece of the Hellenistic period is characterized by the predominance of states and unions of a militarized type (Macedonia, the Achaean Union, the Aetolian Union, Sparta), which continued to challenge dominance in Greece. In most states, oligarchy or kings were in power. The struggle of the states led by Athens against Macedonia after the death of Alexander (the Lamian War 323/322) ended with the victory of Macedonia and the massacre of the Greek democrats. After a second defeat in the Chremonid War (267-261; named after the Athenian commander Chremonides), Athens was defeated, becoming completely dependent on the Macedonian monarchy.
However, Macedonia was unable to restore its power over the entire Balkan Peninsula. They fought against it, sometimes uniting with each other, sometimes separately, two new powerful unions - Achaean (reborn around 280) and Aetolian (created around 320). The Achaean Union covered most of the Peloponnese (except for Sparta, which entered the union after 192) and Largest cities(Sicyon, Corinth, Megara). The Aetolian Union, in addition to Aetolia, included the regions of Central Georgia (except for Athens), southern Thessaly, and some other cities. The struggle of the successors of Alexander, and later Macedonia, and two alliances for power in Greece led to the massive destruction of cities, the sale of inhabitants into slavery, and the settlement of centers by new colonists. The Greek cities were also devastated by pirates, who were used by the Aetolians, selling them into slavery the inhabitants of the captured cities (from Laconica alone, up to 50 thousand people were sold). The result of the struggle was the slow agony of cities, the ruin of the middle strata of the Greek population, the growth of the poor, whose unrest became common (in Corinth, Argos, Miletus).
After the defeat inflicted by the Romans on Macedonia at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in 197, the Romans constantly intervened in the internal affairs of the Greeks, supporting the oligarchic layers against democracy. In the summer of 196, the Roman general Flamininus proclaimed the “freedom” of the Greeks at the Isthmian Games, faith in which made Rome popular in Greece for a short time. Since that time, Greece has been constantly under Roman influence. In fact, Greece was under the rule of Rome. With the establishment of the Roman Empire (27 BC), Greece was turned into the Roman province of Achaia (except for Athens, which was nominally considered a free city) and did not stand out much from other eastern provinces of the Roman Empire. From the 4th c. AD Greece formed the core of the Eastern Roman Empire - Byzantium.
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