"Modernization of Japan in the 20th century" - Japan has entered an era of modernization. To achieve this, Meiji carried out a number of radical reforms. Meiji Revolution. Japanese capitalism has entered the monopoly stage. On April 6, 1868, the Emperor made a solemn statement. Emperor Meiji. Features of the development of Japan at the beginning of the 20th century. Japan on the path of modernization in the 20th century. Japan's history late XIX– beginning XX centuries. Discovery of Japan. In the 80s A widespread movement for a constitution unfolded in the country.
“Year of Italy in Russia” - Spirituality. Theater. Large exhibition of Italian achievements. Music and ballet. Movie. Rafael. Art. Antonello da Messina. Ballet troupe. Rostov-on-Don. Language and literature. Year of Italy in Russia. Chorus of the Rome Opera House. Theatrical and entertainment events. Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
“US Sanctions against Iran” - American individuals and legal entities. Derivative liability. General preventive measures. USA congress. Aiding. Financial operations. Exceptions. Civil penalties. History and development of US sanctions. Foreign individuals and legal entities. Responsibilities. Correspondent. Attacks. Cancellation of exception for transit payments. Asset blocking. Required conditions. Additional examples.
"Missile Defense in Europe" - The deployment of missile defense systems in the Czech Republic and Poland will enable the United States to monitor missile tests being conducted at Kapustin Yar, a Russian test site located about 500 miles southeast of Moscow. It is possible that the US missile defense expansion is actually aimed at Russian nuclear assets and has no defensive value for Europe.
"Tiananmen 1989" - The number of wounded is usually estimated at 7 to 10 thousand. Gradually, the memorial meeting grew into a demonstration. On May 19, the PRC government banned all demonstrations by a special decree. The number of protesters increased; workers, office workers, businessmen and even police officers joined the students. Students put up posters with expressions of condolences and poems in dormitories and on the walls of houses. The Chinese government announced 241 casualties, but no list of those killed was published.
“Second half of the 20th century” - Western European integration. German attack on the USSR. Europe and the USA in the twentieth century. The emergence of the “socialist camp”. The Four D's Policy. Crisis phenomena. Cold War. Beginning of World War II. Unification of the western zones. The struggle for the rights of black people in the twentieth century. Ending. Berlin (Potsdam) Conference. The Second World War. Germany after 1945. The end of the history of the “socialist bloc”.
As everyone probably knows, the middle of the 20th century for Japan was overshadowed by the tragic events associated with the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. And this period was very difficult for the country, because its economy was also greatly weakened.
The only chance to restore the country from ruins was a complete renewal of the production base, as well as powerful leaps in technology. Acting with maximum effort, the Japanese managed not only to develop the production of computers, cars, and any new scientific technologies according to Western models, but also to make their own adjustments to them, due to which the whole world started talking about the country.
Thanks to its own additions, Japan has formed its own system of education and sports, which fully reflects the essence of the culture of this country. And now the hard work of the Japanese has made their culture attractive to all peoples of the world, as well as to people of all ages. Having taken one of the first places on the world stage, Japan now strives to improve every day, creating more and more beautiful, unusual and new things and technologies.
Reflection of national art in the culture of the 20th century
Enriched with new knowledge, Japanese culture allowed cinema to transition to new level. At first, the Japanese began to produce films that were somewhat reminiscent of ordinary theaters, but after a while the acting style was reformed towards realism. And in every still reflects the essence of the country, which demonstrates simplicity, contemplation and laconicism.
By the way, in the middle of the 20th century there were already six large film companies in Japan, and around the same time the creation of gorgeous films by the world famous .
Also, the art of Japan has been enriched with a new genre - which has gained worldwide popularity. At first, there was imitation of their Western colleagues, including Disney, but then the Japanese decided to enlarge the eyes of the characters in order to give their heroes distinctive features.
Japanese literature has made a real revolution in the minds of readers, captivating them with drama and frankness, and also combining reality and mythology. And, perhaps, we should name the names of the writers who became the founders of such art in Japan - And .
Of course, we must not forget about Japan. At the beginning of the century, shakuhachi and shamisen instruments were especially popular, but they soon faded into the background. After all, Japanese hearts were conquered by synthesizers and electric guitars, which later were able to gain worldwide recognition.
The influence of culture on Japanese fashion in modern times of the 20th century
Of course, the culture and art of the 20th century around the world, as well as Japan, left their mark on fashion, which has retained its trends to this day. With the advent of anime, the Japanese, and subsequently residents of other countries, began to imitate the heroes, dressing up in the outfits of cartoon characters and copying their gestures, behavior, and statements.
In some areas of Japan you can meet young people who identify themselves as belonging to a certain subculture. For example, supporters of the Gothic movement constantly dress in black outfits, lace frills, and leather gloves. Fans of RnB and hip-hop often visit solariums to give their skin an unnatural shade of tan, which is not typical for the Japanese, and also dye their hair white.
For quite a long period of time, Japan's foreign policy was based on relations only with nearby countries - China and Korea. The beginning of the 16th century changed the vision of the Japanese. Missionaries from Portugal and Spain brought Christianity to the country. However, after some time, everything changed radically. The beginning of the 17th century was characterized by the almost complete isolation of Japan from trade relations with European countries. The Tokugawa shogunate, fearing that Japan would be subject to colonial conquest, adopted many decrees according to which trade was maintained only with China and Holland, and Christianity was expelled from the state.
Japan remained isolated for two hundred years, and then established relations with Russia, America, France and England. Isolated from the rest of the world, Japan tried to make up for lost time by rapidly adopting knowledge in the field of industry and jurisprudence from European countries.
Japanese foreign policy in the 19th century
At the beginning of the century, Japan continued to stay apart from European states. Significant changes in foreign policy began to occur after 1854, when Japan signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship with America. Later, a similar agreement was approved with Russia, it was called the “Simoda Treaty”. After these two events, Japan began to establish trade relations with many other European countries.
The introduction of a large number of imported goods into the country had a great influence on the domestic policy of the state. The workshops of Japanese artisans and manufacturers began to suffer significant losses, which gave rise to public unrest. In this regard, the beginning of the bourgeois Meiji revolution was laid, the main goal of which was the overthrow of the shogunate.
The second half of the 19th century was characterized by the modernization of Japan. Great efforts were made to ensure that Japan became one of the most powerful states in East Asia. At the end of the 19th century this was achieved. The desire for dominance pushed Japan into an armed battle with China, which took place in 1894-1895. In this battle, Japan won an unquestioned victory. The outcome of the war had an effect on the industrial activities of the state and gaining access to the Chinese market. After this, Japan began to revise the terms of treaties with states in the West.
Japanese foreign policy in the 20th century
At the end of the First World War, Japan was one of the countries that won. She made many acquisitions through victories over the countries of the Pacific Ocean and the Far East. The morale of the Japanese army continued to strengthen, fueling interest in new battles and victories.
Japan's foreign policy at the beginning of the 20th century was affected by the consequences of the global economic crisis. The blow fell primarily on America, which at that time had close economic relations with Japan. The large-scale earthquake of 1923 and the agrarian crisis within the state played a certain role in this situation.
The consequences that developed against the backdrop of the crisis period pushed Japan to take active action. The main option for solving this situation was the Tanaka Memorandum program, which was based on inciting conflicts with mainland countries. One of the main stages of the program was the capture of Northeast China.
In the second half of the 20th century, Japan was drawn into World War II. The main opponents of the state were the USA and the USSR, and Japan was defeated in both battles. Japan's foreign policy after World War II was significantly undermined. Main part government functions America took over the state. Foreign trade, justice, control of the state budget and the rule of parliament were carried out under the direction of American authorities. It was not in the interests of the United States to abandon the Potsdam Declaration and oppose the Japanese people, who advocated democracy in the country. Communication with other countries could not be established directly by Japan; it was in the hands of the occupation authorities. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs played a symbolic role; it had no rights, it only maintained contact between the occupying forces and state headquarters. Of all the political parties in the state, there was only one - the Great Japan Political Association. But after the capitulation, other, young parties began to appear.
Japan's industry suffered little in the post-war period. Major production cuts affected only industries that satisfy the consumer demand of the population. In the first time after the occupation, Japan lagged behind other countries in its industrial development, but the United States provided Japan with economic assistance, which also played a role in the restoration of state forces.
The years 1949-1950 are characterized for Japan by the implementation of land reform. The agrarian question has always been the most acute. The Japanese government could not allow the democratic transformation of agriculture by peasants. Therefore, the reform was carried out through parliamentary means. According to the reform, the lands of the landowners were purchased by the state and then sold by the peasants. People renting land from landowners had a special advantage. Despite the fact that the reform led to some changes, it was not able to completely solve the agrarian question.
Over the past 70 years, Japan has been actively seeking to improve its position in the global space. Japan's modern foreign policy is based mainly on the destruction of stereotypes that developed after the Second World War. The main tactic that the state practices is cultural diplomacy. Japan is trying to get rid of the stigma of being an aggressor and a defeated country. The main goals that Japan set for itself were successfully achieved.
The First World War seriously influenced the further formation of the Japanese economy. The revision of treaties with Western powers, the development of external contacts, control of China and Korea - all this made Japan a virtual monopolist in the Asian market. After the war, Japan actively invested in the economies of other countries. Growing exports served as a good stimulus for industrial growth; the pace of its development was amazing: production volume almost doubled in just five years. In industrial development, priority was given to heavy industry. The war had a positive impact on the development of the largest companies that only became richer during the hostilities: Mitsui, Mitsubishi, Yasuda and others. At the same time, the situation of workers and peasants, dissatisfied with rising prices and increased taxes, sharply worsened. A wave of so-called rice riots swept across the country. Although these uprisings were brutally suppressed, one of the consequences of the “popular anger” was the resignation of the war-minded Terauchi government and the coming to power of a new government led by Haara, the leader of the party of landowners and large capitalists. Also, after the riots, a mass movement for universal suffrage developed, the strengthening of which forced the government to make concessions - the property qualification was significantly reduced.
On Parizhskaya peace conference In 1919, Japan achieved the official transfer to its jurisdiction of all Pacific territories that previously belonged to Germany. Western powers, counting on Japan's support in the fight against the spread of communism, agreed to these demands. Japan agreed to participate in the anti-Soviet struggle and was among the invaders who invaded the territory of the Soviet Union in 1920. However, Japan remained faithful to its interests here too: in the Soviet Union, it was only interested in Sakhalin, which it did not advance beyond the occupation of. Sakhalin was in actual possession of Japan until the establishment of Russian-Japanese relations in 1925. The Japanese people, among whom socialist ideas were widespread, were sympathetic to the problems of socialist Russia; moreover, the intervention required exertion of strength from an almost completely exhausted country. Dissatisfaction with the government's policies was brewing even in army circles, whose contents were sharply reduced due to the lack of sufficient funding from the almost impoverished state, which nevertheless had enormous ambitions.
The period 1920–1921 became a time of crisis in the world economy. Japan, whose economic development during this period depended on external relations, came under a blow from which it could not recover for a long time. The global crisis has caused mass unemployment. The crisis was further aggravated by the fact that after the end of the war, Japan again lost its position in the Asian market, where Western entrepreneurs returned, whose products were undoubtedly better. All these circumstances were beneficial to the Western powers, especially the United States, who wanted to moderate the Japanese appetite for spreading their influence.
On November 12, 1921, a conference was convened in Washington, in which all countries took part Western Europe who wish to resolve controversial issues regarding the Pacific territories. As a result of these negotiations, agreements were concluded that significantly weakened Japan's position. A certain “balance” of world powers had been established, but Japan did not intend to put up with the new state of affairs. Less than 10 years have passed since it upset this fragile Pacific balance.
Japanese fascism
In 1927, another change of government took place in Japan: the outbreak of an internal financial crisis brought an ardent militarist, General Giichi Tanaka, to power. First of all, he. division of the alley with the “left” movement in the country: the workers’ and peasants’ parties suffered significant damage. In the same year, General Tanaka presented to the emperor a secret project, according to which Japan was to pursue a policy of “blood and iron” and crush the Western powers. One of the points of this program was the beginning of military operations against the Soviet Union. Less than a year later, Tanaka began to implement his plan: intervention in China began. This attempt was unsuccessful and the Tanaka cabinet was removed from the board. He was replaced by more peacefully minded ministers. However, in 1931, Japan again reminded itself: another attempt to regain its influence in China resulted in a war in Manchuria and its capture. The next stage was the violation of the commitments made at the Washington Conference. In 1936, Japan officially announced its unwillingness to follow the treaties, which further strained its relations with England and the United States. These actions of the Japanese government were not supported by all its members. Tired of the endless foreign policy maneuvers of the current government, fascist-minded politicians attempted a coup - the fascist putsch of 1936. As a result, Koki Hirota came to power. The creation of the Hirota government was a further step towards the fascistization of Japan, which at the foreign policy level led to the deployment of Japanese aggression. Further development of the country in this direction was carried out under the leadership of First Minister Fumiro Konoe, who was closely associated with holders of large capital and with military-fascist circles. It was his government that took the initiative to start a war with China.
War in China (1937–1941)
Japan had been preparing plans for an attack on China for a very long time, so when on May 7, 1937, it began military operations against Chinese troops near Beijing, it was a clearly planned operation. The Japanese, believing in their quick success, were unpleasantly surprised when the resistance of the Chinese military led to the protracted nature of the war.
With the outbreak of war, the entire economy of the country was transferred to serving military needs. The law “On the General Mobilization of the Nation” was adopted, providing for the government’s right to total control of all spheres of the economy, including transport and trade. Since Konoe's cabinet was linked to large Japanese firms, this provision of the law meant that control of the economy passed into the hands of monopolists. The share of military expenditures was significantly increased: up to 70–80% of the national budget. The situation of the workers has deteriorated sharply: wage decreased, and the working day increased to 14 hours. The Japanese government took advantage of the created situation and the control over the situation in the country that fell into their hands and began to crack down on all dissidents and opposition forces widespread among the people. Were dissolved communist parties, many of whose members were arrested. In this situation, the policy of England and the United States is striking, which, with their “non-interference” tactics, practically expressed approval of Japanese policy. This led to Japan, having seized a significant amount of Chinese territory, declared its dominance over all of China and put forward aggressive demands against the Soviet Union. Only then did the United States, which did not want to part with its possessions in China, try to intervene in Japanese affairs. The war dragged on: the Konoe government was forced to resign. In 1939, he was replaced by an even more aggressive and fascist government of Kiichiro Hira-numa. Japan took the path of further aggravation of relations with Western powers. The attack on the Chinese territories of the Soviet Union showed that on our own Japan will not be able to cope. During May-August 1939, major military operations took place between the Japanese-Manchurian troops, on the one hand, and the Soviet and Mongolian troops, on the other, which ended in severe defeats for the Japanese. Having failed, the Hiranuma government resigned.
When Nazi Germany began military operations in Europe, launching the Second world war With its attack on Poland on September 1, 1939, the Japanese government, led by General Nobuyuki Abe, declared its first priority to resolve the Chinese issue and non-interference in European affairs. The domestic economy was collapsing before our eyes. A card system was introduced. But this did not stop the Japanese military, eager to get rich by capturing new territories. In 1940, Konoe came to power again. This meant the complete fascism of the Japanese political and state system. All parties except the ruling one were dissolved. In addition, it was announced that a new economic system, according to which the economy finally passed into the hands of the state. Another point of the new policy was the proclamation of the creation of a single Asian zone led by Japan. In the same year, a pact was concluded with Germany and Italy, in which these three countries recognized the legitimacy of claims against each other. The USA and England continued to maintain a policy of non-interference in the affairs of the three aggressors: on the one hand, they still hoped to “pit” Japan against the Soviet Union, and on the other, they tried to peacefully resolve the conflict with Germany. On April 13, 1941, a neutrality pact was signed between Soviet Union and Japan. The Soviet Union hoped to ensure the security of its eastern borders in this way, but Japan had a different opinion on this matter: despite the signing of the agreement, the Japanese General Staff was developing a plan for a surprise attack on the USSR and the capture of the Far East. The United States tried to harmonize Japanese policy with its interests, which was beneficial to the Japanese government, which sought to gain as much time as possible to build up military power and openly implement its plans. However, endless negotiations regarding China eventually reached a dead end. On November 26, 1941, the American ambassador demanded that Japan withdraw its troops from Chinese territory. For Japan, this option was unacceptable, and the government decided to begin military action. On December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor was attacked.
War in the Pacific (1941–1945)
The Pacific War began with the attack on Pearl Harbor. Japanese aircraft managed to knock out most of the American fleet located in the area. Was concluded new agreement with Germany and Italy on conducting joint military operations against England and the USA. Initially, the war developed in favor of Japan: all the countries of Southeast Asia were captured. One of the reasons for this success was that the captured countries, being British and American colonies, themselves longed to be freed from their influence and did not offer proper resistance to the Japanese aggressors. However, already in 1942, the United States managed to win several naval victories, thereby stopping the Japanese conquerors. Japan concentrated its attention on the USSR: it actively cooperated with Germany, transmitting to it secret information about the location of Soviet strategic points. The United States, meanwhile, intensified its activities in the Pacific Ocean. In the spring and summer of 1943, the Solomon Islands, New Guinea, as well as the islands of Attu and Kiska were cleared of the Japanese. Japan gradually lost its position. At the 1943 conference in Cairo, an agreement was concluded between England, the United States and China regarding future policies regarding Japanese aggression. Gradually, all the captured territories were taken away from her, and in 1944, military operations were carried out on Japanese territory: the islands of Iwajima and Okinawa were captured. In 1945, shortly before the surrender of Germany, an agreement was concluded between the USSR, the USA and England, according to which the Soviet Union pledged to enter the war against Japan in exchange for the return of its lost eastern territories. An earlier neutrality treaty with Japan was annulled.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
On April 26, 1945, a declaration was published on behalf of the American government, which demanded that Japan cease hostilities. The Japanese decided to ignore this statement, thereby depriving themselves of any possibility of a peaceful resolution of the conflict. On August 6, 1945, the Americans dropped atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima, and on August 9 - a second bomb on the city of Nagasaki. The number of victims was incalculable. The use of this terrible means was carried out not only for the sake of Japan’s surrender, but also to demonstrate to the whole world its superiority in the field of weapons. First of all, this was done for the Soviet Union, which, after the victory over Germany, demanded too much. The Soviet Union began military operations against Japan, defeating its troops in Manchuria. As a result, on August 14, 1945, the Japanese government announced its intention to accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration. Despite this, the Kwantung Army continued to resist Soviet troops. The forces were not equal, and the Japanese suffered a final defeat. The Soviet Union regained itself in this way Southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. On September 2, 1945, Japan signed the unconditional surrender, the final event in the Pacific War and World War II.
American occupation
As a result of this act, Japan was occupied by the American military. She temporarily lost her independence in matters of diplomacy and trade. In addition, it was forced to carry out any foreign policy relations through America. Japan not only lost all its colonies and any influence in China, but also for some time lost power in the Okinawa islands, where American troops were stationed. General MacArthur, who led the occupation, became the de facto ruler of Japan, despite the formal preservation of all Japanese government bodies. American influence on Japanese events remained until 1951, when a peace treaty was signed between Japan and Western countries. According to this treaty, Japan was restored to its national independence, but certain measures taken to prevent a new wave of Japanese military aggression were maintained.
Internal political changes
According to the requirements of the Potsdam Declaration, Japan was obliged to focus its efforts on the democratization of domestic politics. Some laws adopted during the reign of fascist forces were repealed, and the establishment of democratic rights and freedoms was proclaimed. In particular, universal suffrage was established in Japan. All Japanese military forces were disbanded and all military administrative institutions were eliminated. Nevertheless, the influence of pro-fascist elements remained in the country for quite a long time, partially retaining their positions in remote provinces.
After all these measures, democratic parties re-emerged in Japan. On November 9, 1945, the Jiyuto Party, liberal in its attitude, was created, then the so-called progressive party - Shimpoto, whose leader, Kijuro Shidehara, was appointed by MacArthur to head the Japanese government, whose rule did not last long: after the 1946 elections, he resigned . The government, elected according to the new laws, adopted a new constitution of the country on May 3, 1947, where the parliament was proclaimed the highest and only legislative body of the country. The new constitution included an article declaring the Japanese people's renunciation of war and prohibiting Japan from having its own armed forces.
Economy
After the war, the Japanese economy was almost completely destroyed: some industrial enterprises were damaged due to enemy bombing, but more damage was caused by the strain with which enterprises were forced to operate during the war. Inflation began, which was impossible to stop. The occupiers, preoccupied with political changes, paid virtually no attention to the economic crisis and the elimination of its consequences. Only a few years later the Japanese economy began to revive thanks to American investment. The United States placed its military orders in Japanese industry and also provided economic assistance in overcoming the crisis. As a result, by 1951, production levels reached pre-war levels. Japan gradually regained its position in the foreign market, competing with Western countries in trade in Southeast Asia. Quite soon, Japan itself began to invest in the development of production in neighboring countries.
At the end of the 50s, Japan ranked first in the world in terms of industrial growth. There were many reasons for this, but the main thing is that Japan’s almost completely destroyed production was restored taking into account the latest advances in technology. Meanwhile, the situation of the workers remained very difficult. The extended working day, adopted during the war, was maintained, and wages did not increase, despite the increase in the volume of output. All this, as well as the signing of new unequal “security” treaties with America, gave rise to mass protests against the ruling cabinet of ministers. As a result, Hayato Ikeda came to power, whose name is associated with significant changes in both the domestic and foreign policies of Japan. The Ikeda government, bypassing the current constitution, reorganized the armed forces and increased them. A project was developed to double output, which, however, was soon rejected due to the obvious impossibility of its implementation. An important event that contributed to an increase in the number of workers needed by industry was the agricultural law, which eliminated small and medium-sized land farms in favor of larger and more independent ones. In the field of foreign policy, Ikeda maintained a pro-American orientation, further linking his country with the United States. In 1963, Japan signed a number of treaties indicating its consent to the creation of a South Asian military bloc (Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam) under American control. There were American military bases on Japanese territory, and American submarines received permission to be stationed in Japanese ports. However, close military-political cooperation did not contribute to mutual understanding in the field of economics, in particular, foreign trade. America had exclusive rights to almost unlimited exports to the Japanese market, which undermined the country's economy. The heads of Japanese concerns tried to free themselves from the one-sided economic relations imposed on them. Japan ranked first in industrial growth, first in shipbuilding, second in steel production, as well as in automotive, cement and electronics production. Great progress was observed in such industries as radio engineering, optics, and the chemical industry, but at the same time it was forced to put up with the dominance of low-quality American goods in its market. First Minister Ikeda made several business trips in the early 60s to establish sales markets in Asia and Western Europe, in particular in Germany, France, Italy and England. Also, at the request of the Japanese monopolists, the government was forced to expand ties with the Soviet Union. In 1961, an exhibition of Soviet industrial achievements was organized in Tokyo. In 1962, a number of agreements were signed between the Soviet government and the largest Japanese concerns.
In general, the further development of the Japanese state was associated with an increase in economic power due to the virtual absence of military interests. Japan finally realized that it was possible to achieve world domination not with the help of weapons, but with the help of expanding spheres of economic influence. Japan's focus on economic development has determined its modern appearance.
Cities and city dwellers Traditional holidays
Japan is a country with a rich history and culture. Many of the most important historical events have left their mark on the Japanese calendar and are celebrated as holidays. In addition to public holidays, traditional religious and folk holidays are also very popular - echoes of ancient rituals. Speaking about Japanese holidays, it should be noted that the attitude towards holidays in Japan is somewhat different from the European one. So, for example, in this country it is not customary to celebrate national holidays: celebrations with festive food and guests are held only to celebrate some personal events: birthday, wedding, etc. The Japanese attitude towards gifts is interesting. Valuing form above all in everything, the Japanese are most attracted to gifts by how they are packaged rather than by what is inside. Perhaps this is why it is considered impolite to unwrap a gift in the presence of a guest, which contradicts our ideas of good manners.
As in any other country, in Japan the calendar is replete with numerous significant dates. There is also a traditional set: Constitution Day, the day of the founding of the empire, New Year etc. But the most interesting are the Japanese holidays, which developed from ancient customs and rituals.
One of the most beautiful and attractive for tourists is the festival of admiring flowers - Hanami. The blossoming of plums, sakura, peaches, wisteria, and chrysanthemums leaves no one indifferent, unlike most public holidays. The Hanami holiday dates back to the Heian era, when the aestheticization of culture led to an increase in the popularity of these ordinary, in general, events, repeated year after year.
Another favorite holiday is the Boys' Day, traditionally celebrated on May 5th. The origin of this holiday is associated with ancient initiation rites for minor members of the community. Later, in the era of the supremacy of the military class, this holiday began to be considered as important stage in the development of the future warrior - his initiation into the samurai. It is still of great importance today.
Boys take part in celebration ceremonies until they are 15 years old - the age of majority. The reverence for this holiday and the joy of parents can be compared with the reverence with which in Russia older family members treat their offspring receiving their first passport. On the day of the holiday, houses and streets are decorated according to tradition. In every house where there are boys of suitable age, a unique stand is installed on which items of military weapons, armor are displayed, as well as (the influence of modernity) evidence of the achievements of the older men of the clan. All this is aimed at instilling in the boy a sense of pride in his own family and the desire to glorify it with his future deeds.
The girls' festival, or in Japanese - Hina Matsuri (Doll Festival), is celebrated in a similar way. In a family with girls, a stand is organized, but now with women's household items: dolls and toys. In addition to the ritual significance of protection from evil spirits, this holiday now occupies an important place in the education of women. Girls are instilled with the traditional qualities of a good wife, they are taught the basics of housekeeping, raising children, etc.
Major Japanese holidays
JanuaryGanjitsu (New Year)
Ekiden (marathon relay)
Haru no nanakusa (Day of Preparation) rice porridge with "seven spring herbs")
Kagami-biraki (ritual breaking of New Year's decorative rice balls - mochi)
Seijin no hi (Coming of Age Day)
February3 or 4
Setsubun (New Year's Eve according to the old calendar)
4 or 5
Rissyun (Chinese New Year, or beginning of spring)
Kigensetsu (State Founding Day)
Valentine's Day
MarchHina Matsuri (Puppet Festival)
White Day
20 or 21
Shumbun no hi (Spring Equinox)
AprilKambutsu-e (Buddha's Birthday), or Hana Matsuri (Flower Festival)
Midori no hi (Green Day)
Maymay Day
Campokinambi (Constitution Day)
Kodomo no hi (Children's Day)
JuneDay against caries
JulyTanabata (Star Festival)
Umi no hi (Day of the Sea)
AugustDay of Remembrance for the Victims of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
SeptemberNihyaku Toka (beginning of typhoon season), Disaster Management Day
14 or 15
Chushu no meigetsu (Full Moon Viewing Day)
Keiro no hi (Day of Respect for the Elderly)
23 or 24
Shubun no hi (Autumn Equinox)
OctoberDonation Day for the Poor
Taiyuku no hi (Sports Day)
NovemberBunka no hi (Culture Day)
Shichi-go-san (Seven-Five-Three Festival)
Kinrokansha no hi (Labor Thanksgiving Day)
DecemberTenno tanjobi (Emperor's Birthday)
Omisoka (cleansing the house before the New Year)
Traditional Japanese cuisine
There is a saying that “a Japanese eats not only with his mouth, but also with his eyes.” Indeed, the design of a dish in Japanese cuisine is given the same importance as its preparation. This explains some elements of Japanese dishes that are not at all intended to be eaten. Of course, such an important area of human life as eating in Japan cannot but be accompanied by various traditions and rituals. So, for example, the Japanese never sit at a common table, but a separate table is set for the arriving guest, where the entire menu is displayed at once.
Interest in the East, especially Japan, is unusually high in modern world. With growing interest in Japanese culture, tourism began to develop at an extraordinary pace in the country. Not least among the nation's peculiarities that arouse the curiosity of guests is exotic Japanese cuisine. Therefore, here in all cities there are countless restaurants and pubs that satisfy the most diverse tastes and requests of visitors. Among such establishments there are bars in the American and European style, oriental tea houses and Japanese restaurants specializing in cooking national dishes.
Here you can try chicken skin kebab, corn soup, jellyfish noodles, slices sea urchin with pickled bamboo shoots and raw shells. Since the Japanese eat all dishes with chopsticks, which replaces them with a rather complex set of cutlery Europeans have to eat the soup while sipping. Traditional materials for making Japanese chopsticks are: ivory, silver, the most practical and common option is wooden (bamboo) chopsticks, which can be thrown away after the first use. It is Japanese cuisine that holds the secret of preparing the most expensive dish in the world - “marbled meat”.
The ordinary table of an ordinary Japanese is much more modest. Rice, the staple of Japanese cuisine, can be prepared in a variety of ways, but is most often served boiled or steamed. The Japanese breakfast is very hearty: it includes gohan - fluffy boiled rice, kono-mono - pickled cucumbers, or mizoshiru - bean soup. For lunch, gohan with boiled vegetables, boiled lentils and dishes of dried fish and eggs are again served. They dine again with gokhan with strong broth or zashi-mi - raw fish. In general, Japanese cuisine is distinguished by its simplicity and lack of unnecessary frills. Great importance is attached to the sense of taste: the uncomplicated tastes of natural products, which is why the Japanese consume little fat, spices and sauces. The basis of the Japanese diet is plant foods, vegetables, rice, fish, seafood, beef, pork, lamb and poultry. Irreplaceable Japanese product is rice, from which literally everything is prepared: from everyday dishes to desserts. The famous Japanese sake is also made from rice. The technology for making sake is similar to that used for brewing beer, but in finished form the drink contains 3 times more alcohol. Sake is drunk warmed from small porcelain cups.
The Japanese attach great importance to legumes. Bean cheese (tofu) and soybean paste (miso) are very popular in Japan.
The favorite traditional drink of the Japanese is green tea, which they drink at any time of the day and most often without sugar. To European tastes, hopelessly spoiled by black tea, Japanese tea seems tasteless and P| pale. It should be borne in mind that the main thing in drinking tea is enjoying the delicate aroma, which requires great concentration, so important, for example, in the tea ceremony. In addition to tea, the Japanese drink fruit water with ice. Kori, shaved ice with fruit syrup, is especially common as a soft drink.
Culture, education
The 50s were a period of rapid economic development for Japan and the beginning of a scientific and technological revolution that covered all sectors of the economy, which significantly increased the role of education. The developing industry needed qualified personnel. A structural restructuring of the education system has begun. First, primary and incomplete education was reformed high school, then - the highest level of education. The need to replenish labor resources and narrow specialization, ensuring the training of the right specialist in the shortest possible time, significantly lowered the level of the general educational standard. Significant actions have also been taken in the field of moral education of youth, necessary to ensure internal stability. The educational policy developed by the LDP proclaimed “the need to instill devotion to society... increasing productivity for one’s own happiness and the happiness of others.” The “new patriotism” of obedient and devoted employees to the company was the basis for declaring the goal of Japanese life to be “dissolution in work” and the duty to “put your whole soul into it.”
The number of higher educational institutions, technical colleges, and universities were established in almost all prefectures.
Literature
Changes in the socio-political and economic situation of the country had a significant impact on the development of literature in the 50s and 60s. Literature was required, above all, to be able to entertain, and a reflection of this process was the boom of “intermediate literature,” which is something between outright hackwork and true art. Famous representatives of the literature of these years are Matsumoto Seicho, who wrote in the detective genre, Yamaoka Sohachi, the author of many historical novels, the most famous of which was Tokugawa Ieyasu. In the late 50s and early 60s, Tanizaki Junichiro and Kawabata Yasunari enjoyed the greatest fame. What these writers have in common is a philosophical attitude towards the world and the search for inner spiritual beauty. The discord between ideal and reality explains, according to Kawabata, that highest moment when a person and the world come into agreement. He became one of the first Japanese writers to be awarded the Nobel Prize.
Young writers of the 50s and 60s reflected the sentiments of young people disillusioned with the existing order of things. His most famous novel, “Sunny Season,” quickly became a bestseller. A film with the same name was made based on it. The appearance and behavior of the main character became a role model for the youth of these years, who were attracted by the protest against the falsehood and hypocrisy of the world around them.
In the early 50s, the young writer Mishima Yukio gained popularity. He was a representative of the new modernist trend, with an apology for human alienation and pessimism, disbelief in man's active life position, and the elevation of mental impairment to the sophistication of feelings. His most famous work was the novel “The Golden Temple,” in which the hero, a mentally disabled man, first bows to a beautiful work of architecture, then burns it, considering beauty and life incompatible.
The beginning of the writing career of one of the most famous writers of post-war Japan, Abe Kobo, also dates back to the 50s. The work that made him famous was the satirical story “The Wall,” awarded literary prize Akutagawa Ryunosuke. In the first half of the 60s, he published the novels “Woman in the Sands”, “Alien Face”, “Burnt Map”, in which he uses allegory, parable, philosophical form narratives.
Thus, the development of literature in the 50s and 60s went in two directions. In the 50s, the hero of literary works denies the past of his country, although he is powerless to change anything in its development. In the 60s, a hero appears, looking for his place in society and, not finding it, arriving at loneliness, alienation, and spiritual emptiness.
In the subsequent period of development of Japanese literature, the ideas of the chosenness of the Japanese people intensified. Frank propaganda of Japaneseism and militarism becomes the most important part of Mishima Yukio’s work. If in the 50s he interpreted plays for the Noh theater in a modern manner, then already in the mid-60s he began to openly glorify samurai virtues and demanded the revival of the divinity of the emperor as a fetish for the worship of new generations of Japanese (essay “Sun and Iron”). . In his reflections on the chosenness of the nation, he came to recognize the ideas of Hitlerism (the play “My Brother Hitler”). However, not content with just propaganda, Mishima created the far-right paramilitary organization “Shield Society” with his own funds. In November 1970, he attempted a military coup. Without receiving support, he committed suicide traditional way- seppuku. This fact entered the cultural history of Japan as the last evidence of adherence to the military code of honor - “Bushido”.
Architecture and fine arts
The development of post-war Japanese architecture followed complex and ambiguous paths. During the war, the housing stock of almost all major cities in Japan was destroyed. Therefore, the problem of housing construction turned out to be paramount. Due to the lack of a clear plan, construction was carried out spontaneously, without taking into account the urgent needs of the city. Only in the second half of the 50s was a development strategy developed. The solution to the housing crisis should have been facilitated by the construction of microdistricts (danti) with apartment buildings residential buildings. Apartments in four- to five-story buildings (apato) in these areas had a “Western” type of layout and interior. In addition to planning, Japanese builders actively began to use materials that were new to them, for example, concrete. But even such low-comfort housing was available only to average-income Japanese. Most of the housing stock was still made up of traditional wooden ones (without baths, kitchens and often without sewerage).
The housing problem worsened even more in the 60s, when high rates of economic growth and intensive construction of industrial enterprises caused virtually uncontrolled urbanization of the country. This explains why the construction of such houses, originally conceived as a temporary measure, was continued and even became the main direction in solving the housing problem.
The 50-60s were a period of searching for the most rational forms and methods of reconstructing the city, which largely preserved the features of the feudal heritage - wooden housing stock, devoid of household amenities, and narrow streets.
As in all other areas of culture, architects were faced with the problem of combining the demands of modern society with traditional style. One of the successful attempts to solve this problem was the construction of so-called public houses (dormitories). Buildings with a reinforced concrete frame, functional in their essence, were at the same time, in their aesthetic appearance and structural system, close to the national house - its frame structure with non-load-bearing walls. The traditional connection between external and internal space was now achieved through large glazed surfaces. Clear forms, strict proportions, harmony of Western and Japanese styles characterize the work of Japanese architects of these years (Maekawa Kunio, Sakakura Junzo, Taniguchi Yoshiro, Togo Murano and younger architects Tange Kenzo, Otaka Masato, Otani Sachio, Yokoyama Kimio). Among the architectural monuments of these years, one cannot fail to mention the Museum of Contemporary Art in Kamakura (architect Sakakura Junzo), a complex of buildings in the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park (Tange Kenzo), National Museum science in Tokyo (Taniguchi Yoshiro), library and concert hall in Yokohama (Maekawa Kunio).
Architectural creativity achieved significant success in the works of Tange Kenzo, who carried out the construction of sports complexes during the preparation for the 1964 Olympics. He made extensive use of the principle of traditional landscape architecture. After these events, Japanese architecture reached a new level, becoming a significant phenomenon of world culture.
Fine art of Japan post-war period was a reflection of the struggle between two internal trends: the influence of American culture, implanted by the occupiers, and the struggle between progressive and conservative ideas in national culture. The art of engraving was least affected by foreign influence and retained its connection with the national artistic tradition.
In 1949, an organization was created that put forward the slogan of “Japanese folk prints” (jimmin hanga). The Society of Japanese Prints united realist artists whose main focus was social themes. The core of the society was made up of artists Ueno Makoto, Suzuki Kenji, Takidaira Jiro, Nii Hirohawa, and Iino Nobuya. Ono Tadashige worked especially actively, acting not only as an artist, but also as a critic, art critic, and one of the largest specialists in the history of engraving. His works “Black Rain” and engravings dedicated to Hiroshima: “Hiroshima”, “Waters of Hiroshima” are widely known.
The works of the major graphic artist Ueno Makoto are distinguished by great skill. His works are dedicated working person Japan. The engravings “Mother’s Love”, “Thirst”, “Old Beggar” show the difficult life of the common people. For his works dedicated to the bombing of Nagasaki, the artist received the World Peace Council Prize.
Japanese theater, cinema and music
The time of significant restructuring has come for theatrical art. After a long period of difficulties, the Noh theater entered a period of sharp increase in the number of theatrical productions, in connection with the emerging trend in the public life of the country of increased attention to the national cultural tradition (classical theater, literature, applied arts, tea ceremony, ikebana, bonsai, etc.). ).
At the same time, classical theaters for the first time in their history made an attempt to abandon traditional plays and create new texts in modern language. The play “Chieko's Notes” was staged at the Noh Theater, and a dramatization was staged at Kabu-ki classic novel"The Tale of Prince Genji." The Joruri Puppet Theater revived the production of classical plays and works of Western drama.
The situation has also changed in the new theater (shingeki), its troupes Hayyuza and Bungakuza are widely turning to world drama. The following plays were staged here: “Lysistrata” by Aristophanes, “Three Sisters”, “The Cherry Orchard” by Chekhov, “Tartuffe” by Moliere, “The Threepenny Opera” by Brecht, “Rhinoceros” by Ionescu.
In 1947–1950, the first opera troupes appeared in Japan, whose goal was to promote the art of opera and create a national opera. The Japanese became acquainted with European ballet only in 1922, during the tour of the Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova. Then there were attempts to organize a national ballet school. In 1958, a ballet association was created with the goal of uniting various ballet troupes and assisting them in staging performances.
The 50-60s became the time of the so-called independent movement, which determined the development of Japanese cinema. The first film distribution company appeared in 1950 and in just a few years established its independence in the cultural life of the country. This made it possible to produce films that, in terms of the breadth and boldness of their presentation of social problems, were fundamentally different from previously released films.
These years saw the active work of several directors, including Kurosawa Akira, Mizoguchi Kenji, Imai Tadashi, young directors Imamura Shohei, Masumura Yasuzo and others. Kurosawa's famous films of this period are “To Live” (awarded at the Cannes International Film Festival) - about loyalty to human duty, “At the Bottom” based on the play by M. Gorky. Kurosawa's films brought fame to the talented actor Mifune Toshiro, who plays in almost all of the director's films. During these years, films based on the works of classics of Japanese literature (Ihara Saikaku) were staged. Such films tend to follow the concept of national aesthetics and traditional methods of artistic expression. This specificity of Japanese films made them extremely interesting for world cinematography.
The film adaptation of Noma Hiroshi's novel “The Void Zone” directed by Yamamoto Satsuo was extremely famous. The film shows the Japanese military and its morals, the suffocating atmosphere of cruelty that turns the imperial army into a zone of emptiness, where there is no place for a normal person.
Japanese filmmakers have been producing many films these years. Famous directors and actors founded independent companies: Kurosawa-pro, Ishihara-pro, Mifune-pro, etc. The number of films increased from 215 in 1950 to 547 in 1960. However, from the beginning of the 60s, the position of the film industry began to be greatly undermined by the developing television.
Nevertheless, during these years the most famous films of talented directors were released, such as films by director Teshigahara Hiroshi, who adapted several of Abe Kobo’s novels - “The Trap”, “Woman in the Sands”, “Alien Face” and “The Burnt Map”, “Red Beard” » Kurosawa, Imai Tadashi’s film “A Tale of the Cruelty of Bushido”.
The culture of Japan in the 70s and 80s was characterized by the strengthening of trends that had developed in previous decades. Through the efforts of the media, the so-called mass culture is formed, the essence of which is the endless consumption of cultural values. Consumer standards and ideals developed tendencies in society towards alienation and dehumanization of the individual.
The musical art of Japan dates back several centuries of development. Folk songs are still common in the modern world. In origin, they mainly relate to former religious hymns and other musical themes accompanying rituals. Subsequently, they lost their original functions and now act as monuments of folklore. Among peasants, they are often performed during leisure hours. In addition, the media contributed a lot to the popularization of this genre and the loss of its original roots. In the 20th century, many Japanese composers, inspired by traditional tunes, created many imitative works.
Japanese popular music is currently attracting the most attention from people. Among young people there are a huge number of lovers of Western music: jazz, Latin American pop, rock music. Songs popular in Europe quickly become the property of the Japanese public, which determines the influence of Western music on the development of modern musical art in Japan. There is also Japanese popular music that grew on a national basis: kayokyoku. The heyday of this genre occurred in the 20s of the 20th century. Musically, this style now represents a kind of synthesis of traditional Western melodic music and specific Japanese techniques.
Like the rest of the world, Japan fell under the influence of the Beatles. A broad movement developed that emulated the Fab Four. Quite a few amateur groups were formed, which could not but affect further development Japanese stage.
Anime
One of the most popular achievements of Japanese culture of the 20th century was the art of manga and anime. For the European understanding, it is common to consider manga as Japanese comics, and anime as Japanese animation. In fact, these terms serve to somehow highlight the specifically Japanese understanding of these two genres. The peculiarities of the Buddhist-Shinto mentality of the Japanese nation determined the significant difference between their “comics” and “cartoons” from similar works of European countries, in particular America and France. Russia in its consciousness is closer to Christian countries, and therefore we do not always have access to a full understanding of the content of Japanese animation. Even if it sometimes seems similar to the American or French, the underlying cultural differences are visible even to laymen. The need for special terms for Japanese animation is also explained by the importance attached to it in its homeland. If in our country cartoons are traditionally viewed as something secondary to cinema, and comics are not considered art at all, then in Japan the situation is exactly the opposite. Many film artists began by dubbing anime, directors by creating anime, and illustrators by creating manga. Needless to say, Japan is the only country that has nominated a feature-length animated film for the Oscar nomination for Best Foreign Film. If in other countries cartoons often lose the battle with television series and films, then in Japan it’s the other way around: TV channels stage whole battles for the right to show this or that anime series. There is no doubt that anime has significantly influenced the development of modern popular culture in Japan. Pop artists are made up in anime style, videos of many popular music stars are created in the form of anime, and so on. However, it would be wrong to underestimate the influence of anime on Western cultures. And Japanese samurai, and Japanese elves, and even Japanese cowboys - all this is Japan’s contribution to the treasury of world culture. In addition, anime and manga are an excellent tool for those who want to get acquainted with the peculiarities of the Japanese mentality. Of course, this can be done in another way: by getting acquainted with the monuments of ancient Japanese writing, studying religious treatises and trying to understand the symbolism of ikebana and the tea ceremony, but all this is quite tedious and requires incredible patience and love for Japan in order to complete what has been started. Anime is unique in this regard because it allows you to combine business with pleasure. After viewing the nth amount Japanese cartoons, you will not only get incredible aesthetic pleasure (and if you are interested in Japan, then this must happen), but you will also be able to finally understand the intricacies of the Japanese worldview.
Of course, for this to become possible, a certain amount of knowledge is needed. But now, when the art of anime finds an increasing response in the souls of our compatriots and various associations of anime fans are being created, getting to know some basic concepts is not so difficult. There would be a desire...
If you are already familiar with this culture and have a fairly decent understanding of its “wilds,” then the material that will be presented below is unlikely to be a discovery for you. But if you have only recently discovered this wonderful world, if you have only seen a few cartoons, but they shocked you to the core, and you would like to comprehend all the depths of their content, then we will be happy to lift the veil of mystery for you, the name of which is - anime.
First of all, as you already understood if you carefully read our book, Japanese culture as a whole is characterized by increased attention to symbolism. Take, for example, the performances of classical Noh or Kabuki theaters, where the correct understanding of the entire content of the play depends on the interpretation of any gesture, glance, and even sigh. Or the traditional art of illustration (by the way, direct ancestor manga), where the choice of a particular color, pose of the person depicted or objects surrounding him could say a lot not only about his state of mind, but also about his attitude to certain events. Naturally, first manga, and then anime, could not miss this opportunity to meaningfully saturate their plots. As a result, the figurative system of manga and anime, which has absorbed not only the traditional heritage, but also the entire diversity of modern realities of Japanese life, is unusually complex and diverse. There is also an increased attention to detail in this art: any stroke can say a lot to an enlightened viewer. Naturally, for the Japanese, who have absorbed all this knowledge with their mother’s milk, the interpretation of these works does not present any particular difficulties. In Japan, anime is traditionally a genre intended for children, which, in general, is logical, considering that these are cartoons. We, as people who are far from Japanese culture, have to strain quite hard to appreciate anime in all its glory. Detailed Guide according to interpretation, anime would take up too much space, and there’s no point in it. If you have watched these cartoons in sufficient detail, you have probably noticed that hair color usually indicates the character of the hero, and the size of the eyes indicates age, etc. The main thing in this matter is to pay attention to everything that happens on the screen, and comparison of what you have already seen with what you see at the moment. So gradually you will not only master the world of anime, but also gain much important knowledge in the field of culture and history of both ancient and modern Japan, because many anime were created on the basis of significant historical events. If you do not intend to dig so deep, then the aesthetic pleasure that you get when watching will be enough for you: bright and colorful, they have never left anyone indifferent. Have a nice time!
Competent domestic politics and the favorable foreign policy situation caused by Japanese military victories and the First World War ensured the relatively stable and successful development of Japan in the first decades of the 20th century.
After the end of the Russo-Japanese War, Japan began an economic recovery that lasted until 1907. After a short recession that coincided with the global crisis, the Japanese economy continued its successful development. At the beginning of the 20th century. Japan was already an economically powerful power focused on foreign markets. Possessing significant colonial possessions, it took a leading position in the Chinese markets, displacing Great Britain and the United States. In 1914, Japan's share of foreign investment in China reached 13.4%.
At the beginning of the 20th century. Japan's economy still retained an agrarian-industrial character; by 1913, 60% of the country's working population were employed in agriculture. The stability of the agricultural sector largely ensured the stability of the Japanese economy; the country's rice harvest increased significantly, growing by more than 10% in the first ten years of the 20th century. Those industries where the turnover of capital was faster continued to develop successfully. At the beginning of the 20th century. 40% volumes industrial production accounted for the textile industry. Particularly noticeable were the successes in the production of export goods of light industry.
At the beginning of the 20th century. more than 13.3% of industrial production volumes were already accounted for by metallurgy and heavy industry. By the beginning of the First World War, the country was almost half internal needs in ferrous metal was satisfied through its own production. For 1907-1914 Steel production increased several times, production volumes of cast iron, copper, and coal increased significantly. Sumitomo enterprises have successfully mastered the production of aluminum and non-ferrous metal alloys. An important indicator of Japan's economic development was the growth in electricity production and consumption. For 1907-1914 Electricity production increased 6 times, the capacity of power plants in Japan by 1913 reached 0.5 million kW.
After some recession associated with the outbreak of the First World War, economic growth began again in 1915, caused by a significant expansion of markets for Japanese industry. The overall growth of industrial production for 1914-1919. amounted to 80%, production of iron and steel doubled. Japanese shipbuilding has taken third place in the world. Light industry and agriculture experienced growth.
At the beginning of the 20th century, monopolies such as concerns - zaibatsu - finally emerged. Mitsui, Sumito – MO, Mitsubishi, Yasuda. The Fujita family group received ownership of mining enterprises from the state. The Asano family concentrated the cement industry in its hands.
46. The evolution of industrial capitalism in the 19th – 20th centuries.
The main trend in economic development at the end of the 19th century. turned to capitalism based on monopoly or oligopoly. This transition was based on changes in the productive forces caused by the rapid development of science and technology at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, which were called the second technological revolution. The first technological revolution was the industrial revolution. The second technological revolution unfolded in the last third of the 19th century. and continued until the First World War (19I4–1918).
The change in the energy base of production was of utmost importance: steam energy was replaced by electric energy, electrification began, and the technology for receiving, transmitting and receiving electricity was developed. In the 80s of the XIX century. The steam turbine was invented. New industries emerged - electrochemistry, electrometallurgy, electric transport. Internal combustion engines appeared, powered by energy obtained from the combustion of gasoline vapor (N. Otto) and oil (R. Diesel). In 1885, the first car was built (G. Daimler, K. Benz). The internal combustion engine began to be widely used in transport, in military equipment, and accelerated the mechanization of agriculture.
The chemical industry has made significant progress: the production of artificial (aniline) dyes, plastics, and artificial rubber began.
The growth of industrial production and trade led to the development of transport. New vehicles appeared - tankers (oil tankers) and airships.
In 1895 Russian scientist A.S. Popov invented radio.
The leading industries at the turn of the century were: oil production and oil refining, electric power and electrical engineering, and new types of transport.
Heavy industry came to the fore, significantly outstripping light industry in growth rates.
In the United States, joint stock companies arose primarily in railway transport.
Education in Germany joint stock companies covered primarily the mining and metallurgical industries, construction and railways.
In England, the growth of joint stock companies occurred between 1885 and 1905, when, to attract public savings, it was allowed to issue small shares with a par value of up to 1 pound sterling.
In France, joint stock companies arose in the 70s of the 19th century. first in metallurgical and military, and then in other industries.
In addition to joint stock, there were other forms of ownership: state, cooperative, municipal.
Cooperative ownership arose on the basis of the voluntary association of capital and means of production of small commodity producers; served as a form of protection from exploitation by intermediaries and large entrepreneurs.
Municipal property and economy arose in connection with the development of socio-economic infrastructure (transport, electricity, gas supply, schools, hospitals) in cities and rural areas in the last third of the 19th century.
The consolidation of production and the complication of the economic structure led to the transition to new form production organization - monopoly.
The reasons for the monopolization of the market, in addition to the increase in the minimum amount of capital required for the operation of an individual enterprise, were the desire of entrepreneurs to extract maximum profits by ousting competitors and establishing barriers to entry into the industry, and the emergence of natural monopolies.
The role of banks in the economy gradually began to change - the bank turned into an active market participant. With the increasing concentration of banks, the circle of institutions to which one can generally apply for a loan has become smaller, and the consequence of this has been the increasing dependence of large industry on a few banking groups. But at the same time, the banks themselves invested part of their capital in industry, acting as organizers of production.
The leading country for outward direct investment was Great Britain. By 1900 its capital investments abroad amounted to $20 billion.
The development of capitalism in agriculture determined two economic options: the farming path, which was especially evident in the USA and Canada, and the Prussian path of capitalist evolution of landowner farms. However, Europe is characterized by a combination of both paths of development of capitalism in the agricultural sector. The result was an increase in the marketability of agricultural production based on higher labor productivity and efficient agricultural technology.
Thus, at the end of the 19th century. the process of formation of industrial capitalist society in Western and Central Europe was completed and North America. This was a zone of accelerated, “advanced” development of capitalism, its “first echelon”. Eastern Europe, including Russia, and in Asia, Japan, which took the path of reform, represented a zone of “catch-up development.” The era of structural and institutional changes at the beginning of the 20th century. defined by the concept "imperialism"(from Latin imperium - power). Later the term became more widespread "monopoly capitalism".
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