Grammatical form- external linguistic expression of grammatical meaning in each specific case of use of a word. Each individual grammatical form is called a word form.
Grammatical form(in a broad sense) - a unit of language (more precisely, as a linguistic sign) expressing a certain grammatical meaning.
The term "grammatical form" is often used to indicate the grammatical form of a word (form of gender, number, case of a noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, aspect, voice, mood, tense, number, person of a verb, etc.).
Morphological grammatical forms(otherwise - grammatical forms of words) - regular modifications of words of one or another part of speech, expressing a certain grammatical (morphological) meaning or a known complex of such meanings.
Word form- is a single word used in one or another grammatical form (for example: noun house singular genitive, adjective light in the full pronominal form of the nominative case singular masculine positive degree of comparison, etc.)
Word forms are divided into initial (basic) and derivative.
Paradigm(morphological) - a set of word forms of a certain word (the same lexeme).
Paradigm:
General (the totality of all its grammatical forms) complete and incomplete ( E.g. whitewash, yeast, canned food, cream)
Particular (part of the general paradigm of a word, a group of forms of a given word organized in a certain way)
Grammatical category is a system of opposing series of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. Russian grammar distinguishes nominal morphological categories of gender, animate/inanimate, number, case, degree of comparison; verbal categories of aspect, voice, mood, tense and person.
numbers (cf. singular and plural),
case (cf. nominative, genitive and other cases),
degrees of comparison (cf. comparative and superlative degrees),
aspect (cf. perfect and imperfect aspect),
time (cf. present, past and future tense),
type of sentence (cf. narrative sentences, interrogative and motivating, simple and complex, etc.), etc.
Grammema- a component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning represents species concept in relation to the meaning of a grammatical category as a generic concept.
The following are considered as grammes of the modern Russian language:
each of the opposed genders, numbers,
cases of nouns, adjectives, pronouns,
each degree of comparison of adjectives, adverbs,
each mood, tense, person, verb number, etc.
Depending on the possibility/impossibility of being expressed by forms of the same word (i.e., within the paradigm of a given word), morphological grammatical categories are divided into:
such morphological categories, the members (components) of which are represented by different words (lexemes) and cannot be represented by forms of the same word
number, case and degree of comparison of the adjective, person, number, tense, verb mood, etc.
The basic unit of grammar is the grammatical category. The word category denotes a generic (general) concept in relation to specific (particular) concepts. For example, the name dog will be a category in relation to the names of specific breeds - shepherd, terrier, dachshund.
A grammatical category unites grammatical forms with a homogeneous grammatical meaning. A set of homogeneous and opposed grammatical forms of a particular language is called a paradigm. For example, the grammatical category (paradigm) of case in modern Russian consists of six forms with grammatical meanings: nominative, genitive, etc. cases; grammatical category of case in English language includes two forms - nominative and possessive (genitive with the meaning of belonging) cases.
Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning inherent in a number of words or syntactic structures and expressed by regular (standard) means. Grammatical meanings, according to grammatical categories, are morphological and syntactic.
In a word, grammatical meanings are a mandatory addition to the lexical ones. The differences between them are as follows:
a) lexical meaning is inherent in a specific word, grammatical meaning is inherent in a number of words.
b) lexical meaning is associated with realities - objects, signs, processes, states, etc. The grammatical meaning indicates 1) the relationship between objects and phenomena (gender, number, case); 2) on the relationship of the content of the statement to reality (mood, tense, person); 3) on the speaker’s attitude to the statement (narration, question, motivation, as well as subjective assessments - confidence / uncertainty, categoricalness / conjecture).
c) lexical meaning is always meaningful. In a sense, the exception is words with a emptied lexical meaning. They are called desemantized. The word girl defines female representatives of approximately 15-25 years of age, and as an address it is used in relation to much more mature saleswomen, conductors, cashiers, etc. IN in this case the word girl does not indicate age, but indicates the professional status of the addressee.
The grammatical meaning is purely formal, i.e. having no prototype in reality itself. For example, the gender of inanimate nouns is stream – river – lake; Spanish el mundo ‘peace’, fr. le choux ‘cabbage’ (m.r.); neuter gender of animate nouns – Russian. child, child; Bulgarian momche ‘boy’, momiche ‘girl’, kuche ‘dog’; German das Mädchen ‘girl’. An analogue of formal grammatical meanings are words with empty denotations (goblin, Atlantis, etc.).
Grammatical form is the external (formal) side of a linguistic sign, in which a certain grammatical meaning is expressed. Grammatical form is a representative of a grammatical paradigm. If a language has a certain grammatical category, then the name will always have one or another grammatical form. When describing linguistic facts, they usually say this: a noun in the genitive case, a verb in the indicative mood, etc. Grammatical form is the unity of grammatical meaning and material resources his expressions.
Grammatical meaning can be expressed in two ways: synthetically (within the word) and analytically (outside the word). Within each method, there are different means of expressing grammatical meanings.
Synthetic means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. Affixation (inflection, suffix, prefix of a species pair): mother (ip.) – mothers (r.p.); run (infinitive) – ran (past tense); did (non-sov. kind) – did (owl. look).
2. Emphasis – hands (ip., plural) – hands (p., singular).
3. Alternation at the root (internal inflection): collect (non-sov. view) - collect (owl. view); German lesen ‘read’ – las ‘read’.
4. Reduplication – doubling of the root. In Russian, it is not used as a grammatical device (in words like blue-blue, reduplication is a semantic device). In Malay, orang ‘person’ – oran-orang ‘people’ (complete reduplication); partial reduplication – Tagalog. mabuting ‘good’ mabuting-buting ‘very good’.
5. suppletivism - the formation of word forms from another base: I - to me; good - better; German gut ‘good’ – besser ‘better’ – beste ‘best’.
Grammatical meanings can be expressed in several ways. In the formation of the perfect form in ancient Greek. τέτροφα ‘fed’ from τρέφο ‘I feed’ four means are involved at once: incomplete repetition of the stem τέ-, inflection -α, stress and alternation in the root - τρέφ / τροφ.
Analytical means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. Actually analytical means - special grammatical means for the formation of analytical forms: teach - I will read (weekend tense); fast (positive degree) – faster (comparative degree) – fastest (superlative degree).
2. Means of syntactic connections - the grammatical meanings of a word are determined by the grammatical meanings of another word. For indeclinable words of the Russian language, this is the only means of expressing their grammatical gender. Indeclinable animate nouns usually belong to the masculine gender: funny kangaroo, green cockatoo, cheerful chimpanzee. Kind of inanimate indeclinable nouns usually defined by a generic word: harmful tsetse (fly), deep-sea Ontario (lake), sunny Sochi (city), unripe kiwi (fruit).
3. Function words - grammatical meanings are expressed through prepositions, particles or their significant absence: the highway shines (ip.) - stand by the highway (r.p.) - approach the highway (d.p.) - go onto the highway ( v.p.) – turn around on the highway (p.p.); found out (indicative mood) - would know (subjunctive mood).
4. Word order – grammatical meanings are determined by the position of a word in a sentence. In a construction with homonymous nominative and accusative cases, the first place of the word is recognized as its active role (subject), and the second - as its passive role (object): A horse sees a mouse (horse - sp., subject; mouse - v.p., object ) – The mouse sees a horse (mouse – i.p., subject horse – v.p., addition).
5. Intonation – expression of grammatical meanings with a certain intonation pattern. ↓Money went to the phone: 1) with logical emphasis on the word money and a pause after it; the verb went is used in the indicative mood; the meaning of the phrase “The money was spent on purchasing a telephone”; 2) with an unaccented intonation pattern, the verb went is used in the imperative mood; the meaning of the phrase “You need to put money on the phone.”
Questions and tasks for self-control:
1. What is grammar?
2. What is the difference between lexical and grammatical meaning?
3. What features does the reflection of reality in grammar have?
4. What means of expressing grammatical meanings do you know?
The uniqueness of the languages of the world is manifested in grammatical categories. Thus, the category of gender, familiar to East Slavic languages, turns out to be unknown to entire families of languages - Turkic, Finno-Ugric, etc. Chinese there is no grammatical category of number, in Japanese There are no grammatical categories of number, person and gender. In the Russian language, the category of gender of nouns is expressed only in the singular; in the plural, gender differences are neutralized, while in the Lithuanian language, nouns retain gender differences in the plural.
1) grammatical category (GC) acts generalization a whole series (necessarily at least two) grammatical meanings correlative and opposed to each other, which find their expression in certain grammatical forms (generalized meaning of gender, number, case, tense, person, etc.)
2) Civil Codes can change and disappear(cases in English (4=>2), category of number in Russian (singular, plural, dual)
3) Civil codes are divided into morphological and syntactic, namely:
a) morphological– uniting grammatical classes of words (parts of speech), grammatical (morphological) categories and forms of words belonging to these classes, i.e. in the center of morphological categories is the word with its grammatical changes and its grammatical characteristics; morphological GCs are expressed in the following forms:
- inflectional forms:
combine word forms within the same lexeme (for example: the gender category of adjectives is inflectional; the adjective agrees with the noun, taking on its grammatical gender: white paper, white spot)
- classification forms:
classification categories unite lexemes based on common grammatical meaning (the gender category of nouns is classification; the noun table is masculine, wall is feminine, window is neuter, and this gender “attachment” is strictly required)
b) syntactic categories- these are categories based on morphological categories, but going far beyond their limits: the categories of time and modality, as well as - in a broad syntactic sense - the category of person, i.e. those categories that express the relationship of the message to reality and are subsumed under the general the concept of “predicativity”.
Grammatical meaning:
Grammatical meaning- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular expression in the language.
To determine the specifics of the grammatical meaning, it is usually contrasted with the lexical meaning. There are a number of properties that distinguish grammatical meanings from lexical ones.
1) degree of coverage of lexical material:
Grammatical meaning groups groups of words into specific grammatical classes, for example, the grammatical meaning of objectivity unites a significant part of the vocabulary of the Russian language into the grammatical class of a noun, the grammatical meaning of action unites another part of the vocabulary into the class of a verb, etc.
2) acts in relation to the lexical additional, accompanying:
Using various formal indicators, we can change the appearance of a word without changing its lexical meaning (water-water-water-water-water; carry-carry-carry-carry-carry-carry, etc.). However, the grammatical meanings differ regularity of expression, that is, they have the same set of formal indicators, with the help of which they are implemented in different words (for example, the ending -ы, -и in genitive case singular for feminine nouns).
3) by the nature of generalization and abstraction:
If the lexical meaning is associated primarily with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena, then the grammatical meaning arises as generalization of the properties of words, as abstraction from the lexical meanings of words, although behind grammatical abstraction there are also general properties and signs of things and phenomena (the division of verbal tense into past, present and future in Russian and Belarusian languages corresponds to the fact that everything in the world exists for a person either in the past, or in the present, or in the future).
4) features of the attitude to thinking and the structure of language:
If words with their lexical meanings serve as a nominative means of language and, as part of specific phrases, express thoughts, knowledge, and ideas of a person, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organization of thought, its design, that is, they are characterized by their intralingual nature.
Grammatical form– this is that part of the form of a word, phrase or sentence that expresses their grammatical meanings (gender, number, case, etc.). Grammatical form is closely related to the concept of paradigm.
Paradigm (from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample) is a set of grammatical forms of a word or class of words.
The morphological paradigm is characterized by the presence of a stable, invariant part of the word (the root of the stem) and its changing part (inflections, less often suffixes).
Morphological paradigms are divided into big and small, as well as on complete and incomplete. Complete Paradigm includes a set all small paradigms, that is, all possible forms of the word; in the incomplete paradigm, some forms of the word are not formed. For example, the full paradigm of an adjective in the Russian language includes from 24 to 29 forms, which are distributed over a number of small paradigms: the gender paradigm, the number paradigm, the complete paradigm and short forms, the degree of comparison paradigm. Big Paradigms include all meanings of the word, while small – only part of the values.
30. Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings. Means for the formation of synthetic and analytical forms. Mixed word forms
Grammatical meanings can be expressed both within a word - this is affixation, alternation of sounds in the root, stress, suppletivism, repetition and intonation, and outside of it – this is intonation, methods
function words and word order. The first row of methods is called synthetic, second -
analytical.
1) synthetic methods:
a) affixation:
The method of affixation is attaching various affixes to the roots or stems of words, serving to express grammatical meanings. Thus, many grammatical meanings of the Russian verb (person, gender, number, tense) are expressed by endings and the suffix -l-: work-yu, work-esh, work-em, work-em, work-ete, work-ut, work- l, work-l-a, work-l-o, work-l-i.
The grammatical meaning of a word can also be expressed by a zero affix, for example, null ending in the words house, city, forest, garden, student, etc. The zero indicator in grammar has the same formal force as positive indicators. In the system of grammatical forms he contrasted with the presence of formal indicators, thereby acquiring its grammatical meaning in grammatical oppositions. In the examples given, the zero inflection expresses the meanings of the nominative case, singular and masculine in nouns, that is, zero expresses three grammatical meanings at once. The zero grammatical indicator is also present in syntactic constructions. For example, in expressions like Table - furniture, Roses - flowers.
b) alternation of sounds in the root:
Grammatical meanings can also be expressed by alternating sounds in the root, which are sometimes called internal inflection. Such alternations of sounds are not determined by their phonetic position. At the same time, not every alternation of sounds at the root, not determined by their phonetic position, is grammatically significant. In the Russian language there are a lot of so-called historical, or traditional, alternations that are not stipulated in modern language phonetic position. They are called historical because they occurred in one or another historical period in the development of the language and are not explained by its modern state. These alternations do not express grammatical meanings in themselves, for example, stump - stump, day - day, sleep - sleep, run - run, bake - bake, dry - drier, etc., but only accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms , acting as mandatory by tradition.
c) emphasis:
One way of expressing grammatical meanings is stress. In Russian, this method can be observed when expressing grammatical meaning of the perfect and imperfect forms in verbs: cut - cut, pour - pour, take out - take out, cut - cut, pour out - pour out, etc. This method is important in the Russian language when used in some nouns: walls - walls, pipes - pipes, houses - houses, cities - cities, parusa - parusa, khutora - khutora, etc. In English, a verb and a noun can differ only in the place of stress in the word, for example: progréss - progress, progress - progress, import - import, ímport - import, etc. IN different languages grammatical method stress plays a different role, which depends on the type and type of stress in the language. In languages with a fixed single-place stress, oppositions such as the Russian pairs of words noted above are impossible.
d) suppletivism:
In some cases, to express grammatical meanings it is necessary to use forms of words formed from other roots. Such an expression of grammatical meanings using other roots is called suppletivism, and the forms themselves are called suppletive. In Russian, the suppletive way of expressing grammatical meanings is considered unproductive. In a suppletive way, for example, it is expressed grammatical meaning of indirect cases of personal pronouns(I - me, you - you, he - them, we - us), meaning plural some nouns (child - children, person - people), grammatical meaning perfect form a number of verbs (take - take, speak - say, search - find), the meaning of the comparative degree of individual adjectives (good - better, bad - worse).
e) repetitions or reduplications:
Consists of full or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word, which is associated with the expression of grammatical meaning. Repetitions can be carried out without changing the sound composition of the word or with a partial change in it. In a number of languages, repetition is used to express the plural, for example, in Chinese, Malay, Korean, Armenian and other languages: Chinese zhen - person, zhen-zhen - people, xing - star, xing-xing - stars; Malay orang – person, orang-orang – people; Korean saram – person, saram-saram – each of the people; Armenian gund - regiment, gund-gund - many regiments. In Russian, repetitions are used as means of enhancing the intensity of an action or symptom, as well as duration, repetition of action: yes-yes, no-no, barely, barely, kind-kind, big-big, thought-thought, high-high, walk-walk, ask-ask.
f) addition:
A way of forming words in which the reference (last) component is equal to the whole word, A previous its component (or components) is clean base. The composition of the word-formation formant in pure addition includes: a) an interfix, indicating the connection between the components of a complex word and signaling the loss of the morphological meaning of the previous component; b) fixed order of components; c) a single main emphasis, mainly on the supporting component: primary source, forest-steppe, wear-resistant, and half-turned. Interfix can be zero: Tsar-cannon, plunder-army (colloquial)
2) analytical methods:
a) intonation:
Intonation can serve as a means of expressing grammatical meanings. In some languages, such as Chinese, Vietnamese, intonation is used to distinguishing both lexical meanings of a word and grammatical. In the Russian language, intonation is also, in some cases, one of the means of expressing grammatical meanings in a word. For example, a verb in the form of an infinitive can appear in the imperative mood, being pronounced with the intonation of a command, an order, an incentive to action: stand up! sit down! lie down! stand! be silent! run! close! etc. In Russian, intonation as a means of expressing grammatical meanings is widely used in a sentence. Declarative, interrogative and incentive sentences differ from each other in the type of intonation; with the help of pauses inside the sentence they show the grouping of sentence members, highlight introductory words and expressions, can differentiate between simple and complex sentences.
b) function words:
Function words are lexically dependent words that do not have a nominative function in the language (they do not name objects, properties or relationships) and express various semantic-syntactic
relationships between words, sentences and parts of sentences.
c) word order:
In languages in which there are no inflections (or they are rarely used) and the word usually retains the same form, word order is very important. an important way of expressing grammatical meanings. For example, in English, a sentence has a very fixed word order, in which the subject is in the first place, the predicate in the second, the object in the third, the adverbial in the fourth, that is, the place in which the word appears in the statement turns out to be a factor expressing its grammatical meaning.
The sentences the man killed a tiger - the man killed the tiger and the tiger killed the man - the tiger killed the man receive the opposite meaning by changing the places of the subject and object. Word order also plays an important grammatical role in languages such as Chinese, French, and Bulgarian.
The Russian language differs from other languages in its relatively free word order. But in some cases, word order becomes the only means of distinguishing grammatical meanings. Thus, in the sentences “Mother loves daughter” and “Daughter loves mother”, “Being determines consciousness” and “Consciousness determines being”, “The tram hit the car and the Car hit the tram” the meaning of the nominative case is created by placing the noun in the first place; in the first place the noun plays the role of the subject, in the last place - the object.
Mixed or hybrid, the type of expression of grammatical meanings combines the characteristics of synthetic and analytical types. Thus, in Russian, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed in two ways: synthetically - by case inflection and analytically - by a preposition (by car, in the house, in the forest, about the earth, about the accident, etc.).
Many languages combine both types of expression of grammatical meanings - synthetic and analytical, but one of the types always prevails. The predominantly synthetic languages include Latin, Sanskrit, Russian, Lithuanian, German and other languages. In languages of predominantly analytical structure - English, French, Spanish, Danish, Modern Greek, Bulgarian and others - the analytical type of expression of grammatical meanings predominates, the main way of which is function words.
In different languages, grammatical categories can have different volumes: case in German, English, Russian.
What is grammatical meaning? What distinguishes it from lexical meaning?
Grammatical meaning (=grameme) is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding their regular meaning in the language.
Divided by:
ü Partial meaning (objectivity of nouns);
In contrast to the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning:
ü Inherent in a group of words;
ü Necessarily complements the lexical without changing it;
ü Generalizes the properties not of an object, but of a word;
ü Does not express a thought, but serves to organize it.
What are the ways to express grammatical meanings?
Ways to express grammatical meanings:
1) Affixation - attaching affixes to the roots (or bases). For example, we reached it - suffix -l.
2) Internal inflection - alternation of sounds in the root. For example, su X oh – su w e; t oo th–t ee th.
3) Emphasis. For example, cut - owl.species, cut - non-sov.species.
4) Supletivism - expressing grammatical meanings using two roots. For example, I – me.
5) Reduplication - complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word. For example, in Chinese: “sin” - star, “sin-sin” - stars.
6) Intonation. For example, “stand” as an infinitive, “Stand ! "as an imperative.
7) Word order, if inflection is rarely used in the language. For example, the man killed the tiger, not the tiger killed the man.
8) Function words. In this regard, there are 3 ways to express grammatical meanings:
at);
ü Mixed method (V cars e).
What three ways of expressing grammatical meanings are distinguished according to the criterion of the participation of function words?
In this regard, there are 3 ways to express grammatical meanings:
ü Syntactic-lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed by the form of one word (hands at);
ü Analytical-lexical and grammatical meanings are expressed separately (die Katze, the cat);
ü Mixed method ( V cars e).
Lecture 15
What are parts of speech? By what characteristics are they identified?
Parts of speech are lexical and grammatical classes of words.
They are distinguished by characteristics:
ü semantic,
ü morphological,
ü syntactic features.
Define the concept of sentence members and each individual sentence member.
Members of a sentence are structural and semantic components of a sentence, expressed in words or phrases.
1) Main members of the proposal:
The subject is a grammatically independent member of a sentence that denotes an object.
The predicate is a semi-independent member of a sentence, depending only on the subject and denoting the existential attribute of the object.
2) Secondary members of the sentence:
An object is a grammatically dependent member that denotes an object.
Definition - a grammatically dependent member of a sentence, denoting a feature of an object.
A circumstance is a grammatically dependent member that denotes a sign of an action.
What is a phrase? What types subordinating connection possible in phrases?
A phrase is two or more significant words united by a subordinating syntactic connection; performs a nominative function; functions as part of a sentence.
Types of subordinating connections:
1) Agreement - the grammatical meanings of the core component are repeated in the dependent word (dark th forest - dark Wow forest A);
2) Control - the core component of the phrase requires the statement of the dependent component in a certain grammatical form (cutting a birch).
3) Adjunction - the dependent component is attached to the main one without any changes in its shape (talk loudly).
What groups are phrases divided into according to their semantics?
According to semantics, phrases are divided into:
1) Attributive - one of the components names the attribute of another. For example, white birch;
2) Object - there is an object to which the action is directed (action + object). For example, mowing the grass.
3) Circumstantial – action + sign of action. For example, singing loudly.
4) Subjective – subject + specifier of this subject. For example, the arrival of spring.
5) Quantitative – numeral, quantitative indicator + subject. For example, many friends, five people.
6) Complementatives - the main component without the dependent does not make sense. For example, become a hero.
What is a proposal? How does it differ from a phrase and a statement?
A proposal is any message about something, verbally or in writing, that is relatively independent. In formal terms, it is able to separate itself from its own kind: in oral speech - with pauses; in writing - with punctuation marks.
What are the mandatory features of a proposal?
Signs of an offer:
1) Communicativeness is the ability to reflect a specific situation. For example, Winter! – intonation as an external means of expression.
2) Predicativeness - the relation of the information contained in the statement to reality. Appears in categories:
ü Time – the content relates to a certain moment of speech (precedes, coincides, follows);
ü Persons - the communicative situation relates differently to the speaker (attributed to him, relates to the interlocutor or a 3rd person);
ü Modalities – the speaker expresses his attitude to the content of the utterance (reality, desirability, etc.)
How can proposals be classified?
Offer types:
1) Simple and complex (by the presence of one or more predicative nuclei “subject-predicate”);
2) Simple m.b. one-part and two-part (according to the number of main members);
widespread and uncommon (by the presence of minor members of the sentence).
3) Complex ones can be non-union and allied;
Conjunctions can be complex and complex;
4) Narrative, interrogative and motivating, or affirmative and negative.
What do you know about the actual division of a sentence?
Actual division of a sentence is emphasizing a new, highlighted component of a sentence (rheme) in contrast to the old, known one (theme).
Means: word order, phrasal stress, intonation, intensifying particles, articles, voice transformations.
1) Now I I'll go home.
Now I I'll go home.
I'll go now home.
2) Even she I didn't know this.
She even this dont know.
Lecture 16
What types of writing were used before the development of descriptive writing?
Letter- a system of descriptive signs used to record audio speech. It helps people overcome time and space.
Before the advent of descriptive writing, it was used subject symbols (birds and frogs of the Scythians, stones and coal of the Yoruba). Then it began to be used conditional alarm , based on a preliminary agreement (Inca nodal letter).
Triadic structure language - language, speech, speech activity - is also reflected in the units of grammar, where the grammatical category is a unit of language, the grammatical meaning is a unit of speech, and the grammatical form is a unit of speech activity. From a philosophical point of view, the grammatical category is general, the grammatical meaning is particular, separate, and the grammatical form is singular, representing the general and the separate in a formalized individual form. From a mathematical point of view, a grammatical category is a set, a grammatical meaning is a subset of this set, and a grammatical form is a specific representation of the set and the subset.
For example, noun book has the grammatical categories of gender, number and case, which are realized in separate - grammatical meanings of the feminine gender, singular number, nominative case, presented in the singular - word form book. In fact, the grammatical form of expression of the noted grammatical categories and meanings in this case is only inflection -A, which, however, is not used independently in speech, but only together with the base of the word. Hence, in fact, the close connection between the grammatical and lexical in a word follows. The grammatical form cannot be separated from the word form as a whole, since the same inflection -A in another word form it can express other grammatical meanings, for example, the meaning of the plural in a noun at home or the meaning of the imperfect form in the gerund screaming.
Grammatical category. The concept of category (from the Greek kategoria - statement; sign) goes back to Aristotle. He identified ten universal features in the surrounding world as categories: essence, quantity, quality, relationship, place, time, position, state, action and suffering. IN modern science under category in the most general terms, they usually understand a certain universal feature characteristic of a vast collection of objects or phenomena. Gram-
End of page 188
¯ Top of page 189 ¯
The concept of a grammatical category is correlative with such concepts as grammatical meaning and grammatical form. A grammatical category is a generalization of a whole series (necessarily at least two) correlative and opposed to each other grammatical meanings, which find their expression in certain grammatical forms. There could not be one or another grammatical category if there were no correlative grammatical meanings embodied in grammatical form. In this system of relations, the determining feature is a categorical feature, for example, the generalized meaning of gender, number, case, tense, person, etc. Yes, Russian words window, wall, house, like any nouns, they have categories of gender, number and case. These categories are revealed in these words through grammatical meanings and grammatical forms: in the word window through the neuter gender, singular number, nominative and accusative cases (grammatical form - inflection -o); in a word wall through the feminine gender, singular, nominative case (grammatical form - inflection -A); in a word house through the masculine gender, singular, nominative and accusative cases (grammatical form - zero inflection).
The grammatical category thus acts as a system of opposing grammatical meanings, defining the division of a vast collection of word forms into non-overlapping classes. Thus, in the Russian language, the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural form the category of number, the grammatical meanings of six cases - the category of case, the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter genders - the category of gender, etc. In addition to the noted categories, the Russian language also distinguishes grammatical categories of aspect, voice, mood, person, tense and others. For a grammatical category, the opposition of grammatical meanings is important: if such semantic oppositions do not exist, then the category does not form in the language. So, in English, Turkish and
End of page 189
¯ Top of page 190 ¯
A number of other languages do not contrast nouns by gender, so the category of gender is absent in these languages.
The uniqueness of the world's languages is clearly manifested in grammatical categories. Thus, the category of gender, familiar to East Slavic languages, turns out to be unknown to entire families of languages - Turkic, Finno-Ugric, etc. In the Chinese language there is no grammatical category of number, in the Japanese language there are no grammatical categories of number, person and gender. In the Russian language, the category of gender of nouns is expressed only in the singular; in the plural, gender differences are neutralized, while in the Lithuanian language, nouns retain gender differences in the plural.
A particular grammatical category in different languages may have a different volume, that is, the number of opposing grammatical meanings. For example, the category of gender in many languages of the Indo-European family has only two grammatical meanings, and not three, as in Russian: masculine and feminine or neuter and common gender. IN Spanish distinguish eight verbal tenses - five past, one present and two future tenses, while in modern Russian there are only three tenses: present, past and future. In English there are only two cases - the common case and the possessive case, in German four cases are distinguished, in the Russian language - six cases, in Czech - seven, in Hungarian - 20, in the Tabasaran language (Dagestan) - 52 cases.
It is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from grammatical categories. Lexico-grammatical categories of words include subclasses of words that have a common semantic feature within one part of speech. For example, nouns are divided into collective, real, concrete, abstract, adjectives - into qualitative and relative, verbs - into personal and impersonal, etc.
The concept of a grammatical category has been developed primarily on morphological material; the question of syntactic categories has been developed to a lesser extent.
Grammatical meaning. In the "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary" grammatical meaning determined
End of page 190
¯ Top of page 191 ¯
as a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic structures and finding its regular expression in the language. The system of grammatical meanings is formed on the basis of paradigmatic relations of words and word forms and on the basis of syntagmatic relations connecting words and word forms in a phrase or sentence. On the basis of paradigmatic relations, general grammatical meanings of words as parts of speech, as well as grammatical meanings within morphological categories, are distinguished. For example, the meanings of objectivity in nouns, actions in verbs, attribute in adjectives are their categorical part-verbal meanings. Within the category of species, the meanings of the perfect and imperfect species are distinguished; within the category of gender, the meanings of masculine, neuter and female gender, as well as other grammatical meanings within other morphological categories. The various syntagmatic relationships of words and word forms as components of phrases and sentences give reason to distinguish sentence members, as well as different types of phrases and sentences.
To determine the specifics of the grammatical meaning, it is usually contrasted with the lexical meaning. There are a number of properties that distinguish grammatical meanings from lexical ones.
The first difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning is the degree of coverage of lexical material. The grammatical meaning is always characteristic of a large group of words, and not of one word, like the lexical meaning. The grammatical meaning unites groups of words into certain grammatical classes, for example, the grammatical meaning of objectivity unites a significant part of the vocabulary of the Russian language into the grammatical class of a noun, the grammatical meaning of action and another part of the vocabulary into the verb class, etc. Within classes, grammatical meanings group vocabulary into subclasses, for example, masculine, neuter and feminine nouns, singular and plural, perfective and imperfective verbs, etc.
The second difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning is that it is complementary and accompanying in relation to the lexical one. Various grammatical signs
End of page 191
¯ Top of page 192 ¯
meanings can be expressed in the same word; using various formal indicators, changing the appearance of the word, but without changing its lexical meaning (water, water, water*, water, water; carry, carry, carry, carry, carry, carry etc.). At the same time, grammatical meanings differ in the regularity of their expression, that is, they have the same set of formal indicators with the help of which they are realized in different words (for example, the ending -s, -i in the genitive singular for feminine nouns). Grammar; meanings are mandatory in a word, without them it cannot become a word form and a component of a phrase and sentence.
The third difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning is the nature of generalization and abstraction. If the lexical meaning is associated primarily with the generalization of the properties of objects and phenomena, then the grammatical meaning arises as a generalization of the properties of words, as an abstraction from the lexical meanings of words, although behind grammatical abstraction there are also general properties and characteristics of things and phenomena. Thus, the division of verb tense into past, present and future in the Russian and Belarusian languages corresponds to the fact that everything in the world exists for a person either in the past, or in the present, or in the future. The grammatical division of words into nouns, adjectives and verbs generally corresponds to those objects, their characteristics and actions that the human consciousness distinguishes in the surrounding world. But if lexical meanings distinguish individual objects and phenomena (birch - rowan- maple - ash, run - think - write- read, quiet- red - light - noisy etc.), then grammatical meanings distinguish entire classes of objects and phenomena, as well as the relationships between them. At the same time, the connection between grammatical meanings and reality is not always obvious. For example, the connection between the generic forms of nouns and real objects is not obvious: Earth- feminine gender, Mars- masculine, Moon- feminine gender, Jupiter - masculine, Sun- neuter gender, etc., although in this case turning to mythological sources and the history of words can help establish such a connection. Grammatical meanings develop according to the laws of language, not always coinciding with the logic of practical activity
End of page 192
¯ Top of page 193 ¯
human beings, therefore inconsistencies between logic and grammar in language are reflected in grammatical meanings.
Another difference between grammatical meaning and lexical meaning lies in the peculiarities of their relationship to thinking and the structure of language. If words with their lexical meanings serve as a nominative means of language and, as part of specific phrases, express thoughts, knowledge, and ideas of a person, then the forms of words, phrases and sentences are used to organize thought, its design, that is, they are characterized by their intralingual nature. At the same time, both lexical and grammatical meanings appear in a word in unity, in mutual connection and conditionality.
Grammatical form. Any grammatical meaning has its external, material expression - grammatical form. Term form in linguistics it is most often used in two meanings. Firstly, it denotes the external, material - sound or graphic - side of the language, and secondly, this term refers to a modification, a variety of some linguistic essence. In the second meaning, the term “form” is especially often used in relation to both the grammatical forms of a word, (earth, earth, I write, I wrote, I will write etc.), and in relation to the class of grammatical forms of different words (the instrumental case form, the first person form, the form superlatives etc.). Grammatical form- this is that part of the form of a word, phrase or sentence that expresses its grammatical meaning. Grammatical form is closely related to the concept of paradigm.
Paradigm(from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample) in modern linguistics it is customary to call a set of grammatical forms of a word or class of words. The concept of a paradigm appeared in ancient grammar. It denoted a pattern, a model of changing the forms of one word. Traditionally in Greek and Latin grammar word forms were distributed according to types of declension for names and conjugation for verbs. In the description of each type, a table of declension or conjugation was used. In modern linguistics, the morphological paradigm is considered as the totality of all grammatical forms of one word. The morphological paradigm is characterized by the presence
End of page 193
¯ Top of page 194 ¯
the stable, invariant part of the word (the root of the stem) and its changing part (inflections, less often suffixes). Morphological paradigms are divided into large and small, as well as complete and incomplete. For example, the full paradigm of an adjective in the Russian language includes from 24 to 29 forms, which are distributed over a number of small paradigms: the gender paradigm, the number paradigm, the paradigm of full and short forms, the paradigm of degrees of comparison. A complete paradigm includes a set of all small paradigms, that is, all possible forms of a word; in an incomplete paradigm, some forms of a word are not formed. As for the syntactic paradigm, it is sometimes considered as a series of structurally different, but semantically correlative syntactic constructions, for example: A student reads a book; The book is read by the student; The book was read by the student; A student reads a book etc.
All grammatical forms of a word are sometimes divided into inflections And forms of word formation,!, In this case, including word formation in the grammar section. This division goes back to F.F. Fortunatov. When inflecting, the identity of the word is not violated. For example, in the Russian language for nouns, inflection consists of changing them by cases and numbers: oak - oak - oak - oak, oaks etc. During word formation, one word produces other words that are different from it, for example: oak, oak tree, oak.(Morphological inflection is developed in different languages to varying degrees; for example, in East Slavic languages it is highly developed, in English it is weak, and in amorphous languages it may be completely absent.
Classes of grammatical forms with homogeneous means of expressing grammatical meanings are combined into grammatical modes.
End of work -
This topic belongs to the section:
Linguistics as a science and its connection with other sciences
End of page.. preface chapter i linguistics as a science and its connection with other sciences..
If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:
What will we do with the received material:
If this material was useful to you, you can save it to your page on social networks:
| Tweet |
All topics in this section:
Girutsky A. A
G51 Introduction to linguistics: Proc. allowance /A.A. Girutsky. - 2nd ed., erased. -Mn.: TetraSystems, 2003. - 288 p.
ISBN 985-470-090-9.
Linguistics (linguistics, linguistics) is the science of language, its nature and functions, its internal structure, and patterns of development. Nowadays, science knows about 5,000 different
Connection of linguistics with other sciences
Language serves almost all spheres of human life, therefore the study of language, establishing its place and role in human life and society, in the knowledge of phenomena is necessary
Origin of language
The question of the origin of language still remains in linguistics an area of general assumptions and hypotheses. If any language, living or dead, but attested in written monuments, can
Logosic theory of the origin of language
On early stages development of civilization, a logos theory arose (from the Greek logos - concept; mind, thought) of the origin of language, which exists in several different ways
Onomatopoeia theory
The theory of onomatopoeia comes from one of the widespread and influential directions of ancient Greek philosophy - Stoicism. It received support and development in the 19th century. The essence of this
Interjection theory of the origin of language
This theory originates from the Epicureans, opponents of the Stoics, and in more complex versions it finds echoes in the science of language to this day. Its essence is that the word arose
Theory of the origin of language from gestures
The founder of this theory is considered to be the German philosopher and psychologist II half of the 19th century V. W. Wundt (1832-1920). At its core, this theory is very close to the interjection theory
Social contract theory
In the 18th century a theory of social contract appeared, which was based on antiquity (for example, the opinions of Diodorus Siculus (90-21 BC)), and in many ways corresponded to the rationalism of the 15th century
Labor Cry Theory and Labor Theory
In the 19th century in the works of vulgar materialists - the French philosopher L. Noiret (1829-1889) and the German scientist K. Bucher (1847-1930) - a theory of the origin of language from labor was put forward
Nature, essence and functions of language
It is believed that understanding the nature and essence of language is associated with the answer to at least two questions: 1) is language ideal or material? 2) what kind of phenomenon language is - biological, mental,
Ideal and material in language
The structure of the ideal in language is quite multi-layered. It includes the energy of consciousness - spirit, the energy of thinking - thought, which form the ideal elements of language, called
Biological, social and individual in language
In the middle of the 19th century. a view arose of language as a living organism that develops according to the same laws of nature as other living organisms: it is born, matures, reaches its peak,
Language, speech, speech activity
Language is the property of society, but it always manifests itself in the speech of an individual. A.A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920) believed that real existence has the language of each individual, and the language
Language functions
The question of the nature and number of functions of language does not have an unambiguous solution in modern linguistics. Even in educational literature it is interpreted differently. Repeated discussion of questions
Phonetics and phonology
Phonetics (from the Greek phōnē - voice, noise, sound, speech) studies the sound structure of a language, that is, the inventory of sounds, their system, sound laws, as well as the rules for combining sounds in
Acoustics of speech sounds
The general theory of sound deals with the branch of physics - acoustics, which considers sound as the result of the oscillatory movements of any body in any medium. The physical body can
The structure of the speech apparatus and the functions of its parts
Each speech sound is not only a physical, but also a physiological phenomenon, since the central nervous system is involved in the formation and perception of speech sounds. nervous system person. With physiologists
Articulation of sound and its phases
Articulation (from the Latin articulatio - I pronounce articulately) is the work of the speech organs aimed at producing sounds. Each pronounced sound has three articulations
Phonetic division of the speech stream
Speech phonetically represents a continuous stream of sounds following each other in time. The sound stream, however, is not continuous: from a phonetic point of view, it can
Interaction of sounds in the speech stream
Speech sounds, when used as part of a word, beat and phrase, influence each other, undergoing changes. The modification of sounds in the speech chain is called a phonetic process
Stress and intonation
In a speech stream, all phonetic units - sounds, syllables, words, measures, phrases - are represented by linear segments (segments) of one or another length, located in successive order.
Phoneme and phoneme system
Prerequisites for the emergence of phonology. Until now, the material side of language has been considered: the physical and physiological embodiment of the ideal essences of language in speech
Morphemics and word formation
A larger unit of language than the phoneme is the morpheme, which occupies an intermediate position between the phoneme and the word. Despite all the disagreements in the approach to morpheme, the only thing in common
Changing the morpheme structure of a word
The morphemic composition of a word can change over time when affixes, both externally and internally, are closely connected to the roots and to each other. As part of these fusions, the former boundaries of m
Word formation and its basic units
The vocabulary of any language is in a state of continuous development, one of the patterns of which is the addition of new words to the vocabulary of the language. Replenishment of vocabulary about
Lexicology and semasiology
The basic unit of language is the word. Language as a tool of thinking and communication is primarily a system of words; it is in the word that language acquires its integrity and completeness, being formed in the process
The word as the central unit of language
Word structure. The word, as the central unit of language, has a very complex structure, in which the language also receives its structural integrity and completeness (see diagram). Actually
Lexical meaning and its types
Lexical meaning is most often understood as a historically formed connection between the sound of a word and the reflection of an object or phenomenon in our minds, designated
Development of the lexical meaning of a word
Polysemy. Most words in a language have not one, but several meanings that appeared over a long period of time historical development. So, the noun gr
Lexico-semantic groupings of words
Back in the last century, Russian semasiologist M.M. Pokrovsky (1868-1942) drew attention to the fact that “words and their meanings do not live a life separate from each other,” but are united in our soul not
Chronological stratification of the vocabulary of the language
Vocabulary fund. The vocabulary of any language can be described not only on the basis of semantic similarity and contrast of words, reflecting the systematic nature of the vocabulary
Stylistic stratification of the vocabulary of the language
In every literary language The vocabulary is distributed stylistically. There is no generally accepted classification of the stylistic stratification of vocabulary; it varies among different authors.
Onomastics
Onomastics (from the Greek onomastik - the art of giving names) is a branch of lexicology that studies any proper names. This term also refers to the totality of one’s own
Phraseology
Phraseology and phraseological units. Phraseology (from the Greek phrásis, gen. phráseos - expression and logos - word, doctrine) is a branch of lexicology that studies
Etymology
The vocabulary of a language represents that side of it that is more susceptible to historical changes than any other. Words change their meanings and sound appearance, which is often done
Lexicography
Lexicography (from the Greek lexikon - dictionary, graphō - write) is the science of dictionaries and the practice of compiling them. She is very closely related to lexicology and semasiology
Grammar and its subject
Grammar (from ancient Greek grammatike techne - literally written art, from gramma - letter) is a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of a language, that is, the laws of structure and
Basic ways of expressing grammatical meanings
The whole variety of grammatical forms in the languages of the world is reduced to a countable and easily observable number of ways.
Parts of speech and parts of sentences
The word as an element of morphology and an element of syntax. In grammar, the same word has to be considered both as a morphological phenomenon and as a syntactic phenomenon.
Collocation
Collocation as a unit of syntax. The theory of collocation was developed mainly in Russian linguistics. Foreign linguistics with the concept of phrases benefit
Offer
Sentence as a unit of syntax. The sentence in modern linguistics is considered as the basic unit of syntax, contrasting it with words and phrases in form, meaning
Background of the letter
True story writing begins with the appearance of descriptive writing. But even before that, people communicated at a distance and over time in a variety of ways and means. As a pre
Main stages in the history of writing
The main types of descriptive writing. In the development of descriptive writing, several stages have historically followed, characterized by various types letters. Features
Alphabets, graphics and spelling
Alphabets. The alphabet (from the Greek alphábētos) is a set of letters of any phonemographic script, located in historical in the prescribed manner. The word a itself
Specialized writing systems
Specialized writing systems include transcription, transliteration and shorthand, serving professional needs.
Transcription. Transcript
Languages of the world
As already noted, there are approximately 5,000 languages on the globe. The difficulty in determining their exact quantity lies primarily in the fact that in many cases it remains unclear what it is -
Patterns of historical development of languages
About 40 thousand years ago, if not earlier, Homo Sapiens, that is, a reasonable person, appeared. He knows rock art and uses sound language, which acts as a full-fledged
It is believed that linguistic fragmentation was the condition of humanity at the time of its emergence. This condition is found in many modern typically tribal societies of Africa, Australia,
External and internal laws of language development
In modern linguistics, the concept of laws of language development is not defined clearly enough, since many language changes do not form a constant ascending line associated with development.
Loading...