For centuries, the knowledge contained in books was accessible to few. Libraries were mainly owned by monasteries and kings. Each manuscript was unique, because it took a lot of time to produce. In the Middle Ages, monks often spent years copying a single manuscript. This continued until approximately 1450. With the invention of printing, it became possible to publish books relatively cheaply and in large quantities.
Mirror maker
Johann Gensfleisch, who later changed his surname to Gutenberg, was born in Mainz around 1400 (the exact date is unknown). It is noteworthy that much more information has been preserved about the history of the invention of printing than about the inventor himself. Thus, historians know practically nothing about the first half of Gutenberg’s life. It is only known for certain that young Johann attended a monastery school. He then apprenticed as a goldsmith until his family moved to Strasbourg.
Here in 1434 he opened a factory where mirrors were made for pilgrims. They were very popular because believers hoped with their help to catch a piece of God's holy spirit, which, in their opinion, lived in the temples they visited. In the Middle Ages, trade in cult objects brought good income, so Gutenberg's business flourished.
Printed graphics
Engravings depicting saints were especially popular at that time. They were created using one of the first printing techniques - woodcut, which appeared in Europe in the Middle Ages. It was used to replicate texts and images.
Cutting out blocks to fit the page was a labor-intensive process. First, it was necessary to draw a mirror image of the page, then individual letters were cut out. The block was then smeared with ink, and so that it was absorbed, it was covered with paper, which was rubbed with a bone tool.
At the beginning of the 15th century, such engravings became more and more numerous. Sometimes several pieces were bound into a book. All this gave impetus to increasing the production of manuscripts. Moreover, at this time, not only monks, but also lay people were copyists of books.
Background to the invention of printing
By the 15th century Western Europe there were about 80 universities. And the foundation of new educational institutions only increased the demand for books. More accessible and cheaper copies were needed. All this created the conditions for the search for new techniques for creating books. Gutenberg, along with other inventors, took part in them.
In 1438, in Strasbourg, he and Andreas Dritzen began experimenting with printing. As a result, Gutenberg figured out how to use movable letters (types) to compose not only individual words, but entire pages. Moreover, he understood how to disassemble them in order to then compose a new text from them. However, further experiments with printing required financial investments.
Commercial transaction
Between 1445 and 1448, Gutenberg returned to his hometown, since in Strasbourg he could not interest anyone in his experiments. He had better luck in Mainz. He made a deal with Fust Johann, according to which the latter owned the capital in the common enterprise, and Gutenberg owned the idea and tools. However, after 2 years, the inventor had to again ask Fust to lend him money. This time on the security of the entire workshop.
Having received a new loan, Gutenberg was able to devote himself entirely to the invention of printing. He came up with a brilliant idea: to divide the text into components - punctuation marks, letters and ligatures, that is, their frequent combinations. All this was combined into blocks. Words and entire pages of text were typed in this way. Cast letters could be used repeatedly in different combinations.
How the letters were made
An inverted letter was engraved on the end of the metal rod. It was dipped into softened copper, making an imprint in it. The result was a matrix, which was a form for a font that was cast from lead. To make the process of making letters less time-consuming, Gutenberg invented a hand-casting tool. The matrix itself could be used to produce an unlimited number of letters.
From these, the typesetter created a layout for mirroring the page. It was smeared with printing ink - a mixture of egg white, varnish and soot. After these preparations, you could start printing. Gutenberg borrowed the principle of a mechanical machine from a wine press.
All this happened in 1450. The invention of printing is thus associated with this date. First printed works The German master had textbooks, papal decrees, official documents and indulgences.
Litigation
In the year of the invention of printing, the master began a gigantic task - publishing the Bible in Latin. Together with typesetters, Gutenberg spent more than two years printing the first edition of 100 thousand copies. The book was printed in a Gothic font based on handwritten letters. At the end, the artist decorated the Bible with colored drawings. Thus, a printed book was in no way inferior in beauty to a handwritten one. Not surprisingly, the first printing of the Bible quickly sold out. And Gutenberg's compatriots were stunned, because this was the first time they had seen so many identical books.
True, the inventor himself was not able to get rich thanks to the printing press. He didn't even get to finish printing the Bible because his lender, estimating future profits, demanded repayment of the loan. A legal battle ensued, resulting in Gutenberg losing both the printing press and all the finished copies. Holy Scripture. Soon after these events, Mainz was captured by enemy troops, and the inventor was expelled from the city. Only three years later was he allowed to return to work for the new archbishop. Gutenberg died in February 1468, and the invention of printing in the German city of Mainz has since changed the world forever.
Diffusion of new technology
Very soon, printing presses began operating in Basel, Bamberg and Cologne. For the 15th century, the invention of printing was a truly revolutionary event. In Venice, printers working for the publisher Aldo Manuzzi came up with a new font - the serif. After a little time it was already used everywhere.
Only 20 years have passed since the invention of printing, and the new technology is already firmly rooted in Everyday life. A large number of books were published in huge circulations for those times - about 1000 copies. As the written word became increasingly accessible, literacy rates in Europe rose and the number of readers increased.
Mark on history
Martin Luther, whose name is associated with the Reformation movement, was an ardent admirer of Gutenberg. The invention of printing led him to the idea that there was no point in waiting for a layman to retell what was written in the Bible, because now any person could read it himself. Luther printed a huge print run of his translation of the Holy Scriptures into German (half a million copies).
The secular authorities (the emperor and the free cities of the Holy Roman Empire) also used a new way of notifying the population. Therefore, soon one-page leaflets-pamphlets became the main means of transmitting the latest news. For example, when the unusual positions of the planets were predicted in 1524, pamphlets foreshadowed a second global flood.
In addition, the date of the invention of printing is directly related to another, no less important milestone in history. We are talking about the appearance of the first daily newspaper “Fresh News”. This happened in 1650 in Leipzig. Despite all the improvements in printing that were made in subsequent centuries, it was Gutenberg who laid the foundation modern world press. His machine is considered one of the most important achievements of human civilization, and the date of the invention of printing is an epoch-making milestone in world history.
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Evidence about Gutenberg's life is fragmentary; one can only guess about some stages of his fate. The contribution that the pioneer printer made to the development of culture in Germany and Europe cannot be overestimated.
Gutenberg's childhood and youth
Johannes Gutenberg was born between 1393 and 1403. Scientists conventionally consider the year of his birth to be 1400. The inventor's family belonged to an ancient noble family and lived in one of the largest and richest cities on the Rhine - Mainz. Gutenberg's parents Friele Gensfleisch and Else Wirich had four children. The Gensfleisch-Gutenberg family belonged to the urban patricians who were the political and economic elite of Mainz. In the earliest documents, Johannes Gutenberg is referred to as Henne Gensfleisch or Henne zur Laden.
Little is known about Gutenberg's childhood and youth. The youngest among several brothers and sisters, the boy apparently attended a church school. This is evidenced by Gutenberg's extensive knowledge of Latin, which was useful to him for his subsequent publishing activities.
Strasbourgtaught Guttenberg to earn money
In 1434 Gutenberg settled in Strasbourg. This city opened up ample opportunities for enterprising people to make money. Gutenberg's business activity suggests that he had extraordinary abilities in attracting capital and qualified employees for his projects.
Since 1437, Gutenberg taught wealthy citizens how to polish precious stones. Some time later, Gutenberg founded a small pilgrim mirror business that produced tin frames to which small convex mirrors were attached with brackets. Pilgrims pinned these devices to their headdresses, hoping with their help to catch the beneficial and healing energy emanating from the holy relics and take some of it with them for their family and friends. However, most likely, they did not mean real mirrors, but illustrated books of an edifying nature called “Mirrors”, which were very popular at that time.
But Gutenberg suffered a setback: the pilgrimage took place several years later than planned, and the invested capital remained idle for a long time. Another invention brought him more income. Gutenberg engraved the stamp used to print indulgences.
Invention of the printing press
At the end of the 40s of the 15th century, Gutenberg again settled in Mainz. The most important period of Johannes Gutenberg's life passed here - it was in Mainz that he invented the method of printing using movable letters. Thanks to his relative, Gutenberg received a loan of 150 guilders (which roughly corresponded to the average peasant's earnings for five years) and used this money to equip his workshop.
The first books published by Gutenberg were Latin grammar textbooks. Later, Guttenberg planned to prepare a labor-intensive edition of the Bible and borrowed a huge sum for those times from a major businessman, Johann Fust.
A lossprinting houses
Bible published by Gutenberg
When the printing of the Bible was actually completed, disagreements arose between Gutenberg and Fust. Fust accused his partner of embezzling funds and demanded the return of the debt with interest - in total over two thousand guilders. With this money in Mainz it was possible to build an entire street with stone houses. Gutenberg had to give away the workshop along with the invention and half of the printed copies of the Bible.
Fust took over the printing house and successfully continued the work begun by the inventor. Gutenberg was left behind another workshop, smaller in size and with less technical capabilities. From then on, Johannes Gutenberg took on only small orders, which were neither technically nor aesthetically comparable to the first edition of the Bible.
After the loss of the workshop, Gutenberg's attitude towards his invention changed. If earlier he hid the technology from outsiders in every possible way, not wanting to share the benefits with anyone, then after the loss of the workshop, Gutenberg began to participate in various publishing projects. For example, he helped in the publication of the Bible in Bamberg.
last years of life
The turbulent political events in Mainz in the 1460s, the struggle between the old and new archbishops of the city led to the fact that Johann Guttenberg, who supported the old archbishop, was expelled from his hometown with the arrival of the new one.
The inventor of printing settled in Eltville, where at first he lived in poverty. But in 1465, the new Archbishop of Mainz, deciding to restore justice, appointed Gutenberg as his courtier and granted him a life annuity. The inventor received a court dress, plus 2180 liters of bread vodka and 2000 liters of wine, and was also exempt from paying taxes.
Three years later, at the end of January 1468, Johannes Gutenberg died and was buried in the Church of St. Francis. Later this church was destroyed, and since then the burial place of the pioneer printer is unknown.
Johannes Gutenberg
Johann Gutenberg (Heinzfleischi) was born into a noble family in Mainz no earlier than 1394 and no later than 1399. The date of Gutenberg's birth for anniversaries is conventionally considered to be June 24, 1400. He was a famous, and hereditary, jeweler; he knew how to polish precious stones, cast jewelry from precious metals, and make gold frames for mirrors. It would seem, earn as much as you can and enjoy life. But Gutenberg had a dream. He wanted to print books.
Gutenberg's printing press
In 1440, Gutenberg made a real revolution in printing by inventing movable type - individual letters that made it possible to type a wide variety of texts. The very first printed book is considered to be the so-called “Sibylline Book” (a poem in German), the publication of which researchers date approximately to the end of 1445. Hence the invention of printing can be dated no later than 1445. The work was carried out in the strictest secrecy: the invention undermined the foundations of the activities of scribes, who were capable of doing anything just to preserve their craft. One also had to be wary of the clergy, in whose hands there was a monopoly on reading and writing. In addition, news of a new method of making books would immediately lead to a drop in their value. Therefore, Gutenberg's books, like all the first books, imitated Gothic manuscripts, they were even passed off as handwritten.
Until 1456, with virtually no outside material support, he cast no less than five different types, printed the Latin grammar of Aelius Donatus (several sheets of it have reached us and are kept in the National Library in Paris), several papal indulgences and two Bibles, 36 -lowercase, and 42-line. After this, Gutenberg, by a court decision, was forced to give the printing house to an unscrupulous partner, a man who practically did not sponsor the activities of the printer, but tried to squeeze every possible extra penny out of Gutenberg’s printing house for himself.
Gutenberg had to start from scratch. In 1460, he managed to publish a work by Johann Balbus of Genoa called Catholicon (Latin grammar with dictionary). Gutenberg died in 1468, not the most successful businessman, but a man who forever changed the history of the world thanks to the invention of printing. His invention quickly spread throughout all European countries. By 1500, printing houses operated in more than 200 cities in different countries, and the total number of printing houses was close to 2000.
Page from Catholicon
There are no real, authentic images of Gutenberg. All his portraits date back to a later time and are the fruit of the imagination of artists.
In addition to the font, Gutenberg also owned other inventions: a press for printing letters; thick black opaque printing ink, convenient for applying to dozens of tiny letters; an alloy for casting individual elements of the font - not too soft, but not too hard, which made the font not fragile, but durable; a type-cast hand-held device that ensured the standardization of type and mass production. The device was a hollow metal rod with a removable lower wall made of soft metal, on which a letter pattern was stamped using a hard stamp - a punch. The font was cut using the smallest tools (this is where Gutenberg's cutting skills came in handy!). The inventive genius of Gutenberg gave birth to both the grid (from then on, all modular elements of type were placed and limited to the space of the frame), and various types font thanks to the newly opened possibility of mechanical reproduction of letters. Thus, grid and type, the two main components of graphic design, have been used for over 500 years!
Thus, Johannes Gutenberg has the credit of creating the entire printing process as a whole. For the 15th century, his invention was more than innovative, and the letter became the first standard part in the history of world technology.
Gutenberg's famous work is a printed 42-line Bible (the so-called Mazarin Bible). This is the only book reliably published by Gutenberg, and was printed in Mainz around 1450. Its design goes back to handwritten biblical texts that were in circulation in those days. This was reflected, first of all, in the division of the page into two columns and in the forms of letters in the style of German “black” or Gothic writing. Hand-drawn elements of climbing plants were added later to enhance the decorative effect. The design imitates a handwritten style, but it is transformed by means of graphic design - through the use of an orderly, unified font placed within a grid.
Gutenberg Bible spread
The German Johann Gutenberg, whose biography is described in this article, had a tremendous influence on the entire world around him. His invention truly changed the course of history.
Ancestors of Johannes Gutenberg
Since he was born and lived in the fifteenth century, very little information about him has been preserved. In those distant times, only prominent political and church figures were honored to be included in documentary sources. However, Johann was lucky. His work was appreciated by his contemporaries; information about him is found in various historical descriptions of that time.
It is known for certain that Johannes Gutenberg was born into a wealthy family of Friele Gensfleisch and Elsa Wirich. This happened around 1400.
His parents married in 1386. The mother came from a family of cloth merchants, so their union was considered unequal. From time immemorial, in the city there was a struggle between the patricians (the upper strata of the burghers, the father's family) and the guilds (artisans, the mother's family). When the confrontation in Mainz escalated, the family had to leave so as not to endanger their children.
In Mainz, the family had an estate named after the father's surname, Gensfleisch, and the Gutenberghof farmstead.
It is possible that the inventor had a knighthood, although his mother's background and his own activities contradict this. However, there is an ordinance signed by the French king Charles the Seventh, in which Gutenberg's name appears.
Childhood and youth
A brief biography of Johann is not contained in any of the ancient sources. It can be restored only from fragmentary data. That is why reliable information about the first years of his life simply does not exist.
There are no records of his baptism. However, some researchers believe that his birthday is June 24, 1400 (the day there is also no exact information about the place of his birth. It could be either Mainz or Strasbourg.
Johann was the youngest child in the family. The eldest son's name was Frile, there were also two girls - Elsa and Patze.
After graduating from school, the young man studied handicraft, deciding to follow in the footsteps of his ancestors on his mother’s side. It is known that he achieved the highest skill and received the title of master, since he subsequently trained apprentices.
Life in Strasbourg
Johannes Gutenberg lived in Strasbourg from 1434. He was engaged in jewelry making, polishing precious stones and producing mirrors. It was there that the idea of creating a machine that would print books arose in his head. In 1438, he even created an organization under the mysterious name "Enterprise with Art." The cover was the making of mirrors. This fellowship was organized jointly with his student Andreas Dritzen.
Around this time, Gutenberg and his team were on the verge of a brilliant discovery, but the death of his companion delayed the publication of his invention.
The invention of printing
The starting point of modern book printing is considered to be 1440, although there are no printed documents, books or sources from that time. There is only indirect evidence according to which a certain Waldfogel, starting in 1444, sold the secret of “artificial writing.” It is believed that this was John Gutenberg himself. In this way he tried to get funds for further development your machine. So far it was just raised letters made of metal and carved in its mirror image. In order for the inscription to appear on the paper, it was necessary to use special paint and a press.
In 1448, the German returned to Mainz, where he made a deal with the moneylender I. Fust, who paid him eight hundred guilders annually. The profits from the printing house were to be shared as a percentage. But in the end this arrangement began to work against Gutenberg. He stopped receiving the promised money for technical support, but still shared the profits.
Despite all the troubles, by 1456 Johann Gutenberg's press had acquired several different fonts (five in total). At the same time, the first grammar of Aelius Donatus, several official documents and, finally, two Bibles were printed, which became historical monuments for printing.
The 42-line Gutenberg Bible, printed no later than 1455, is considered Johannes's magnum opus. It has survived to this day and is kept in the Mainz Museum.
For this book, the inventor created a special font, a variety. It turned out to be quite similar to the handwritten one due to the many ligatures and abbreviations that were customary for scribes.
Since existing inks were not suitable for printing, Gutenberg had to create his own. Due to the addition of copper, lead and sulfur, the text in the book turned out to be blue-black, with an unusual shine; red paint was used for headings. To combine two colors, one had to run the same page through the press twice.
The book was published in a circulation of 180 copies, but few have survived to this day. The largest number is in Germany (twelve pieces). There was one copy of the first printed Bible in Russia, but after the revolution the Soviet government sold it at auction in London.
In the fifteenth century, this Bible was sold for 30 florins (3 grams of gold per coin). Today, one page from the book is valued at $80,000. There are a total of 1272 pages in the Bible.
Litigation
Johannes Gutenberg was twice brought to justice. This happened for the first time in 1439, after the death of his friend and companion A. Dritzen. His children claimed that the machine was actually their father's invention.
Gutenberg easily won the case. And thanks to his materials, the researchers learned at what stage of readiness the invention was. The documents contained words such as “embossing”, “printing”, “press”, “this work”. This clearly indicated that the machine was ready.
It is known for certain that the process stopped due to the lack of some parts left by Andreas. Johann had to restore them himself.
The second trial took place in 1455, when I. Fust filed a lawsuit against the inventor for non-payment of interest. The court ruled that the printing house and all its components were transferred to the plaintiff. Johannes Gutenberg invented printing in 1440, and fifteen years later he had to start all over again.
Last years
Having barely survived the consequences of the trial, Gutenberg decided not to give up. He joined the company of C. Gumeri and published in 1460 the work of Johann Balbus, as well as a Latin grammar with a dictionary.
In 1465 he entered the service of Elector Adolf.
The book printer died at the age of 68. He was buried in Mainz, but the location of his grave is currently unknown.
Spread of printing
What Johannes Gutenberg became famous for attracted many people. Everyone wanted easy money. Therefore, many people appeared who pretended to be the inventors of printing in Europe.
Gutenberg's name was recorded in one of his documents by Peter Schaeffer, his apprentice. After the destruction of the first printing house, its workers dispersed throughout Europe, introducing new technologies in other countries. Their teacher was Johannes Gutenberg. Printing quickly spread to Hungary (A. Hess), Italy (Sveichneym), and Spain. Oddly enough, none of Gutenberg's students went to France. Parisians independently invited German printers to work in their country.
The final point in the history of the creation of book printing was set by Anthony Van der Linde in his work in 1878.
Gutenberg studies
The personality of the European pioneer printer has always been popular. Researchers from many countries did not miss the opportunity to write any work about his biography or activities. Even during his lifetime, disputes began about the authorship of the invention and the place (Mainz or Strasbourg).
Some experts called Gutenberg the apprentice of Fust and Schaeffer. And despite the fact that Schaeffer himself called Johann the inventor of printing, these rumors did not subside for a long time.
Modern researchers call the main problem that the first printed books did not have a colophon, that is, a mark of authorship. By doing this, Gutenberg could have avoided many problems and would not have allowed his legacy to languish.
Little is known about the identity of the inventor also because there is no personal correspondence or reliable image of him. The amount of documentary evidence is insufficient.
Johannes Gutenberg invented unique fonts that helped establish and confirm his legacy.
In Russia, interest in studying the life of the first printer appeared only in the middle of the twentieth century. The 500th anniversary of the invention of printing was celebrated at that time. The first researcher was Vladimir Lyublinsky, a representative of the scientific community of Leningrad.
In total, more than 3,000 scientific works have been written and published in the world (including short biography Gutenberg).
Memory
Unfortunately, no portraits of Johann survived during his lifetime. The first engraving, dating back to 1584, was written in Paris to describe the inventor's appearance.
Mainz is considered not only the hometown of Johann, but also the place of invention. Therefore, there is a monument to Gutenberg, his museum (opened in 1901).
An asteroid and a crater on the Moon are named after him.
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