What does the word irrigation mean? Irrigation and watering

irrigation

IRRIGATION (irrigation) supplying water to fields experiencing a lack of moisture to create an optimal water regime for agricultural plants; type of reclamation. Irrigation systems are built for irrigation. Irrigation is an indispensable condition for the development of cotton growing, rice growing, vegetable growing, etc.

Irrigation

irrigation, supplying water to fields lacking moisture and increasing its reserves in the root layer of the soil; one of the types of land reclamation. Water treatment consists of a complex of technical, agrotechnical, and organizational and economic measures, which are based on hydraulic engineering methods for the normalized flow of water into the soil. Irrigation water improves the water regime of the soil, increases the water content of plant tissues, increases turgor, dissolves nutrients and makes them available to plants. O. influences the thermal regime, regulating the temperature of the surface layer of soil and the ground layer of air, allows you to control the growth and development of plants, enhance the growth of certain organs, including generative ones, and improve the quality of the crop. In fruit and berry crops that receive the optimal amount of moisture, the sugar content of the fruit increases, in oilseeds the fat content in the seeds increases, in wheat with additional nitrogen nutrition the protein in the grain increases, and in cotton the fiber quality improves. With the correct irrigation regime, favorable conditions are created for microbiological processes in the soil, in particular for nitrification. Agriculture makes it possible to thoroughly improve the lands of the arid zone and involve them in agriculture. In turn, it is more productive to use land in sufficiently wet areas. It is of great importance for the development of cotton growing, rice growing, grain farming (creation of large irrigated tracts of grain crops), livestock farming (re-seeding of fodder plants on irrigated lands, creation of irrigated cultivated pastures).

By the beginning of the 19th century. The global area of irrigated land amounted to 8 million hectares, by the 20th century. ≈ 48 million hectares (irrigation construction in India, Egypt, USA, Italy). In Russia, irrigation work was carried out mainly at the expense of private entrepreneurs; by 1913, O.'s area did not exceed 4 million hectares. In the 20th century O. is developing in many countries, especially in China, India, Pakistan, Iran, Japan, Egypt (the entire sown area is irrigated), the USA, Mexico, Italy, Bulgaria, France, etc. In the 50s. irrigated lands occupied 121 million hectares, in 1972 more than 225 million hectares. In the USSR, the area of the lake was about 12 million hectares (1972); in the 9th Five-Year Plan (1971–75), it received a significant increase (in Central Asia, the Volga region, the North Caucasus, southern Ukraine, and other areas). According to the time of operation, irrigation is divided into regular (gravity-flow and with mechanical water lifting by pumping stations) - water is supplied to the fields at the specified time and in the required quantity in accordance with the irrigation regime; periodic (one-time) ≈ water is supplied to the irrigated area once, for example, during a flood on a river or release from a reservoir; see Estuary irrigation. To implement irrigation, irrigation systems are built. Their water intake structures take water from water sources (rivers, large canals, lakes, reservoirs, groundwater collected through wells, karizs) into irrigation canals, which transport it to irrigated areas and distribute it among irrigated areas. They also irrigate with wastewater (see Irrigation fields) and water with dissolved fertilizers (fertilizer irrigation). Modern irrigation is characterized by the construction of new large irrigation systems, the irrigated area of which reaches tens and hundreds of thousands of hectares (for example, Karshinskaya in the USSR, on the Saskatchewan River in Canada, in the area of the Aswan Reservoir in Egypt), and the reconstruction of old ones. Technical improvement of water supply includes: the introduction of telemechanics for controlling and automating the intake, distribution, and accounting of water and irrigation; replacement of open channels in the earthen channel with pipelines and flume channels; the use of linings and screens as anti-filtration protection, the use of polymers (pipes, films for screens in canals and reservoirs); more rational methods of irrigation (see sprinkling, subsoil irrigation, surface irrigation) and the design of irrigation equipment, the development of irrigation with machine water lifting, etc.

Cultivation of agricultural products crops under irrigation have their own characteristics: specific methods of soil cultivation, increased doses of fertilizers, coordination of irrigation with cultivation of crops, etc. (see Irrigated agriculture). Of great importance is the prevention of soil salinization, which in many countries (Iran, Iraq, Syria, India, Egypt, etc.) has become catastrophic, and the fight against it through leaching and construction of a drainage network (see Flushing of saline soils, Drainage of agricultural lands) .

Lit.: Kostyakov A.N., Fundamentals of land reclamation, 6th ed., M., 1960; his, Izbr. works, vol. 1≈2, M., 1961; Askochensky A.N., Irrigation and water supply in the USSR, M., 1967; Mamedov A.M., Irrigation of Central Asia, M., 1969; Shumakov B. A., Irrigation in the arid zone of the European part of the USSR, M., 1969; Shubladze K.K., Land reclamation, M., 1970; Irrigated cultural pastures, M., 1970.

K. K. Shubladze.

Wikipedia

Irrigation

Irrigation- supplying water to fields lacking moisture and increasing its reserves in the root layer of the soil in order to increase soil fertility. Irrigation, together with drainage, is the main type of land reclamation - hydraulic. Irrigation improves the supply of plant roots with moisture and nutrients, reduces the temperature of the ground layer of air and increases its humidity.

Irrigation (disambiguation)

Irrigation (irrigation) - supplying water or other sprayed liquid to any object.

Irrigation is the supply of water to fields lacking moisture.
Irrigation in medicine is the supply of sprayed liquid to certain external parts or hollow organs of the human body for therapeutic or hygienic purposes.

Examples of the use of the word irrigation in literature.

Physiotherapeutic agents are most often used irrigation ethyl chloride, cryomassage with liquid nitrogen and carbonic acid snow, ultraviolet irradiation, dersonvalization, vacuum massage and massage of the collar zone, indirect diathermy of the cervical sympathetic nodes, phonophoresis of baldness with vitamins and glucocorticoids.

Galina Leonidovna also announced that irrigation the uterine cavity with iodine tincture does not seem to her to be such a harmless procedure.

To harvest crops in the inaccessible Andes, the Quechua people had to think through, build, and then maintain in perfect order a complex system of artificial irrigation, since at height 3.

Thus, land reclamation and irrigation- everything is according to the rules, we get what we have and how much - and don’t ask.

This message draws a sharp line between the upland lands with nomadic land use and the valleys with permanent agriculture: in the mountains rice is sown on unirrigated lands, and in the valleys it is used irrigation.

Rice and opoka are drying up, and the fields, from which excess water had to be drained just recently, now require irrigation.

Tens of thousands of hardworking families were destroyed and ruined, craft and industry, especially in the south of the country, suffered terrible damage, and the most fertile, flourishing region of Spain, Andalusia, was turned into a parched steppe, since the Castilians, who occupied the lands of the Moors, were unable to adopt the eastern system artificial irrigation.

If for irrigation dams, canals, reservoirs and sluices were used, as well as shadufs and other water-lifting mechanisms, manual and draft, then for cultivating the land during the birth of the agrarian-technical revolution, the so-called sukovatka and the wooden plow that grew from it were used.

We tried to grow crops without using artificial irrigation, using only organic fertilizers, without insecticides - and most of the harvest went not to people, but to beetles and other insects!

However, agricultural productivity and settled settlements increased significantly when rainfall irrigation land gave way to irrigation facilities.

In another case, in the valleys of some rivers in a warm climate zone, people learned to maintain regular soil fertility. irrigation.

But there are known air conditioning systems where a decrease in air humidity is achieved by irrigation cold water.

Provides short-term or long-term closure of dry magnetic contacts for the purpose of controlling low-voltage devices, e.g. irrigation home flowers.

That is why for thousands of cycles in the Mara deserts no traces of the Marians have been found, all oases are covered with sand, the great irrigation abandoned by the melt waters of the polar ice, the Marianas feed only on what can be obtained in the depths.

In Mexico and Peru, terrace farming of the Mediterranean type developed using aqueducts, artificial irrigation and animal fertilizers, and even isolationists note the amazing similarity of hoes, baskets, sickles and axes.

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Story

In Europe, the oldest masters of irrigation are the Etruscans. The huge remains of the canals between the Adige and the Po still testify to the gigantic structures carried out by these people solely for the purpose of watering the fields. They passed on their art to the Romans. The latter highly valued water, and even today their hydraulic structures are amazing: elevated pools, water canals, artificial ponds and lakes, magnificent decoration of springs and other perfect devices for delivering good water.

Irrigation structures developed most widely in Lombardy. The network of irrigation canals in this area, developed and improved since Roman times, covered an area of up to 450,000 hectares by the beginning of the 20th century. The main canals of this network, which included ancient artificial watercourses, were built at the beginning of the Middle Ages partly by monks, partly by the cities of Milan, Cremona and others under the rule of the Visconti, Sforza, Pallavicino, and in the region of Mantua by the Gonzaga dynasty. The oldest canal, Vettalia, was built in 1057. Already in 1216, a collection of regulations on the use of water appeared in Milan, which were subsequently improved and served as the basis for the irrigation legislation of 1747. In the 11th century, the monks of the Abbey of Chiaravalle owned more than 8,000 hectares of irrigated meadows and sold their surplus water. To determine its quantity, special water meters were used, in which water was passed through a certain hole (0.029 m²), at a constant pressure (0.10 m). 2.1835 m³ flows through such a hole per minute, which is called a Milanese ounce. Subsequently, instead of a water ounce, other devices and instruments began to be used to measure flow, called modules since the time of Soldati, the first inventor of such a device in the 16th century.

Basic information

Irrigation refers to hydromelioration, which is a series of measures aimed at long-term improvement of the water regime of the soil in order to increase its productivity. Hydro-reclamation is carried out through the construction of engineering hydraulic structures, with the help of which a calculated change or regulation of the water regime of the territory is carried out. If irrigation is required to be carried out in an area poor in water reserves, then the territory must first be irrigated, since constant transportation of the volumes of water required for irrigation would be extremely ineffective and expensive. With the help of watering, the flow of water is ensured naturally, which allows it to be used in the future directly in irrigation systems.

It is effective to use irrigation together with other types of reclamation, for example, agroforestry, which includes the creation of protective forest belts and areas. In this case, it is possible to achieve not only an improvement in soil conditions, but also a change for the better in microclimatic conditions, when the local moisture circulation as a whole improves. In arid regions, soil moisture alone may not be enough, since dry winds increase evaporation from the surface of plants, and the rate of replenishment from the root system may be insufficient, which leads to wilting. You can also note such types of reclamation as desalination reclamation, which involves removing harmful salts from the soil, and thermal reclamation, when crops are irrigated with warm water.

In general, irrigation is used in a wide variety of areas according to climatic conditions. Obviously, the greatest need for irrigation is observed in regions with a hot, dry climate (arid climate), characterized by low precipitation (200-300 mm per year). The moisture index (the ratio of annual precipitation to potential evaporation) is less than 0.33, and the evaporation deficit (the difference between possible evaporation during the growing season and productively used precipitation) exceeds 5000 cubic meters per hectare. In Russia, such lands include the territory of the Astrakhan region. This climate is typical for the countries of Central Asia, where the main crop grown with the help of irrigation is cotton.

Irrigation is also very effective in subarid areas. For them, the moisture index is less than 0.77, and the evaporation deficit is 2000-5000 cubic meters. meters per hectare. The climate in such areas is more favorable than in arid climate zones, but dry periods occur here every few years, which can cause great damage to agriculture. Irrigation here plays a slightly different role; it serves not so much to create possibilities growth, as much as to even out fluctuations in the volume of products received over the years and more efficient use of land with the ability to harvest crops several times a year. The defining crops are forage and grains.

Depending on the local situation, different irrigation methods are possible. Firstly, the entire area of land can be irrigated, which is typical for arid climates, as well as individual areas of certain crops, which is typical for more humid climatic regions. Secondly, irrigation can be carried out once a year (the so-called estuary irrigation), in which the necessary supply of water is created in the soil, used by plants throughout the year, or irrigation can be carried out constantly.

Irrigation mode

The task of irrigation is to determine the necessary amount of water required to carry out irrigation work with maximum efficiency. To do this, take into account both local climatic conditions and the type of irrigated plants and the conditions it requires for maximum growth and the amount of water during different periods of growth. You should know the phases of development of a particular culture and provide the required conditions for each of the phases. The following growth phases can be distinguished: germination, tillering, flowering and ripening. The most water-intensive phase for cereal crops is the tillering phase, while, for example, for cotton it is the flowering phase.

There is a distinction between irrigation norm - the amount of water required by a crop for one watering, and irrigation norm - the entire volume of water for the irrigation period. The water consumption coefficient is the amount of water consumed by plants per unit of yield.

Irrigation systems

Irrigation systems generally consist of several components:

Water source - river, pond, reservoir, well, providing the required volume of water
Water intake structure - regulates water intake into the system
Network of linear water supply devices - channels, trays, pipelines
Irrigation network and devices - direct irrigation strips, furrows, checks, tiers, watering machines and devices
Drainage and discharge network - for collecting and draining surface runoff from the site
Drainage network - to regulate the level of groundwater and remove salts
Auxiliary structures - for regulating pressure, flow and volume of water, treatment facilities, etc.
Infrastructure - roads, forest belts, energy supply structures, industrial and residential buildings, storage ponds, etc.

Accordingly, several types of irrigation systems can be distinguished depending on the components used. For example, if pumping stations are used as a water intake structure, then the system is with mechanical water lift, as opposed to a gravity system. Based on the type of openness, one can distinguish between open systems, where channels and trays are used, and closed systems, where pipelines are used. Systems also differ in the method of irrigation: surface irrigation, sprinkler, rice, estuary, drip or subsurface irrigation.

Soil moisture

Studying and predicting the properties of soil moisture is one of the most important tasks in irrigation, since it is precisely for its regulation that irrigation is intended. Soil moisture refers to the moisture contained in the upper layer of the earth within the aeration zone. The key parameter characterizing soil moisture is its mobility, depending on the value of which soil moisture is divided into crystallization, solid (ice), vapor, tightly bound, loosely bound and free. The task of irrigation is to create a certain humidity that would ensure the maximum yield of the crop sown in a given area. At the same time, several types of soil moisture are distinguished, which allows you to calculate its properties as accurately as possible:

Maximum hygroscopicity allows you to estimate how much moisture the soil can contain before the absorption process stops
The smallest moisture capacity shows how much water will remain in the soil after all the gravitational water has drained away
Total moisture capacity determines the maximum amount of moisture that can be contained in the soil.
Wilting humidity is the humidity at which the process of absorption of moisture from the soil by a certain plant stops; accordingly, this characteristic depends not only on the type of soil, but also on the variety of crop.

The rate of water absorption into the soil can be determined by the formula:

u = α K t α − 1 (\displaystyle u=\alpha Kt^(\alpha -1)),

By integrating this expression, we can obtain a layer of absorbed moisture over time t (\displaystyle t):

H = K t α (\displaystyle H=Kt^(\alpha )).

In order to prevent the process of irrigation erosion from starting, it is necessary that all incoming moisture be absorbed into the soil.

To assess the water yield properties of certain soils, you can use the water yield coefficient, which is equal to the ratio of the volume of water freely flowing from the soil to the volume of this soil, expressed as a percentage. Fluid loss coefficient values range from 0.01 for clays to 20 for fine-grained sands.

Irrigation methods

The main methods of irrigation include:

watering furrows with water supplied by a pump or from an irrigation canal;
spraying water from specially laid pipes;
aerosol irrigation- irrigation with tiny drops of water to regulate the temperature and humidity of the surface layer of the atmosphere;
subsoil (intrasoil) irrigation- irrigation of land by supplying water directly to the root zone;
estuary irrigation- deep one-time spring moistening of the soil with local runoff waters.
sprinkling- irrigation using self-propelled and non-self-propelled systems of a circular or frontal type.

see also mechanized irrigation.

Irrigation in different countries

Negative environmental consequences

If there are errors in the organization of land reclamation, irrigation agriculture can cause a whole chain of negative environmental consequences. The main ones are:

irrigation erosion;
accumulation of agro-irrigation soil cultural horizon;
secondary salinization of soil and soil;
waterlogging of soil and ground;
pollution of surface and ground waters;
shallowing of rivers;
subsidence of the terrain.

Secondary salinization is one of the main consequences of land irrigation in an arid climate. It is associated with the rise of mineralized groundwater to the earth's surface. Groundwater containing salts begins to evaporate intensively, as a result of which the soil is saturated with an excess amount of salts. An acute environmental problem in irrigated agriculture is pollution of surface and groundwater. This is the result of watering the land and using water to desalinize the soil. Most rivers whose waters are used for irrigation have a mineralization of 0.2-0.5 g/l. Currently, their mineralization has increased 10 times, which has led to an increase in secondary salinization. The problems of soil and water salinity are aggravated by the use of mineral fertilizers.

Reducing the negative environmental effect to a minimum is possible with proper planning and implementation of irrigation, since most of the shortcomings are not organically inherent in it

Irrigation is the artificial moistening of the soil in fields with agricultural crops. The climate in most of Russia is known to be continental and quite arid. Therefore, it is possible to get a good harvest of grains, vegetables, beets, potatoes, etc. in our country only if they are sufficiently and regularly watered. In order to provide plants with the most suitable conditions for development, special water supply systems are built in the fields.

The meaning of the word "irrigation" and its etymology

Providing plants with the water they need can also be called hydration or irrigation. Actually, the systems themselves, assembled for irrigating fields and greenhouses, are often called irrigation systems.

The etymology of the word "irrigation" is quite simple. It is clear that it most likely came from “dew”, “drizzle”. In ancient times, these two terms were used to refer to small droplets of water falling from fog and moistening objects.

Core Technologies

Thus, we found out the meaning of the word “irrigation”. Actually, irrigation of agricultural crops can be done in different ways. The main irrigation technologies used by farmers and large agro-industrial companies are:

subsurface irrigation;
sprinkling;
surface watering.

All of these techniques can be quite effective. However, choosing a specific technology should first of all take into account the characteristics of the site itself that requires irrigation.

Subsoil irrigation - what kind of technique?

Irrigation is, in essence, creating comfortable conditions for crops to develop artificially. The costs of installing irrigation systems can often be very, very large. In order for the scheme to work as efficiently as possible, first of all, of course, the basic technology should be chosen correctly.

In greenhouses, for example, a technique such as subsurface irrigation with water is often used. The main advantages of this type of irrigation include:

saturating the soil not only with moisture, but also with air;
the top layer of soil remains dry, which, in turn, prevents the germination of weeds;
the dry top layer slightly reduces the moisture content of the ground layer, which reduces the risk of putrefactive diseases of the root system of plants;
greenhouse employees have the opportunity to continue working even during the irrigation procedure.

Subsoil system design

Soil irrigation using this technology is carried out through pipes laid at a depth of 20-30 cm underground, at a distance of about 50-90 cm from each other. Water is supplied to such a system under a pressure of 0.2-0.5 m. In this case, polyethylene pipes with a diameter of 20-40 mm are used. Before laying in trenches, many 2-3 mm holes are made in them.

Water that is too turbid or contains a large amount of suspended matter can only be used for subsoil irrigation if sedimentation tanks are previously installed. In the absence of such designs, the system equipment will most likely fail very often. In winter, steam or hot water can be supplied through pipes laid underground to additionally heat the plants.

Drip irrigation

Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to plants, which can also be carried out using this method. Drip irrigation is also commonly used in greenhouses. However, in some cases, this irrigation method can also be used in open ground. It is used outdoors most often in areas with rugged terrain or with a large slope.

The main advantages of drip irrigation are:

timely provision of plants with moisture;
saving water.

Drip irrigation can be used on any type of soil. However, this technique is not always effective in areas with very loose soil. It is believed that it is most profitable to use such irrigation in areas with limited water resources.

Design features of drip systems

When using this technique, water is supplied to the plants in the form of thin streams with a diameter of 1-2 mm. Soil moistening during drip irrigation occurs only in certain areas under the action of capillary forces. Water can spread in such a system both horizontally and vertically.

When arranging such an irrigation scheme, a pipeline is first laid across the site. Droppers of a special design are attached to it. Such equipment is produced industrially and is equipped with a device for reducing pressure and drains.

In agriculture today, two types of similar irrigation systems are used:

aboveground;
underground.

In the latter case, water outlets are brought to the surface using outlet feeders. The pipeline itself is laid in trenches at a depth of 45-50 cm. Above ground, when using the second method, the pipeline is pulled along the rows of the garden.

When using this irrigation technology, water must settle before entering the pipeline. If the cleaning procedure is not carried out, the system will quickly lose performance due to clogged droppers.

Sprinkler irrigation is the best technology for very large areas

This is the technique most often used in agriculture for watering crops. The sprinkling method can moisten the soil, including in large open areas, for example, in fields sown with grain crops. This irrigation technology is considered especially convenient in areas with a large slope, with close groundwater, on sandy loam soils and in areas with complex terrain.

When using this technique, artificial rain is created on the field using special equipment. The main advantages of this technology include:

ease of implementation;
efficiency.

When watering plants in this way, you need to make sure that the drops do not nail the leaves to the ground. If this happens, it is necessary to reduce the diameter of the sprinkler holes. As a result, watering will be carried out with smaller drops that have little weight.

What equipment is used for sprinkling irrigation?

As in the first two cases, when assembling such a system, a pipeline is first laid on the field. Then hoses are removed from it, to which sprinklers are attached. The latter can have very different designs. For example, sprinklers are used to water crops:

snails (fountain);
Signer wheel (rotating with two sprays).

In gardens, ordinary hoses with holes bent into a ring are often used as sprinklers. They are simply placed in tree trunks and pressure is applied.

What is surface irrigation

This is the name for irrigation technology in which water is distributed over the field in a continuous layer. The surface irrigation technique can only be used in areas with a slope of no more than 0.01-0.03. Irrigation of land using this technology is not used when groundwater is close to the field, as well as on areas with light soils. This technology is best suited for areas with arid climates. Its main advantages are:

the ability to retain a significant amount of moisture in the soil;
reduction in the number of irrigation activities carried out.

Surface irrigation methods

Irrigation can be carried out using this method in three ways:

Along the furrows. In this case, shallow artificial channels are used, laid parallel to each other with a slight slope. It is along them that water moves. This method is considered the most effective and is used most often on farms.

By checks. This technology is usually used in gardens. When used, water is supplied to every tree and bush. In this case, rollers are created on four sides of the trunk to form a square. The height of such sides should be at least 30 cm. The actual watering itself is carried out by flooding the entire area.

Along the holes. This method is most often used for watering plantings on slopes. In this case, each plant is irrigated individually. The size of the holes must correspond to the parameters of the crown. For fruit trees, for example, this figure is usually two meters. The disadvantage of this technique is considered to be primarily the destruction of the soil structure.

Irrigation systems: basic elements

Thus, different equipment can be used to water crops. Any irrigation system organized on the site must provide water supply to moisten the soil under the plants in a timely manner and in the required quantities. For convenience, the entire irrigated area is usually divided into gross and net areas. The latter includes only the actual irrigated areas occupied by agricultural crops. The gross area also includes areas alienated for canals, hydraulic structures and technical plantings.

The irrigation system on farms usually includes the following elements:

Water source. This could be, for example, a river or a pond. When choosing a source, water parameters and its quantity are taken into account.

Water intake structure. The equipment installed here performs the task of pumping water and distributing it throughout the territory.

Irrigated areas. This is the name of the main territorial units of the irrigated area. There are no channels inside each such area that would impede the movement of agricultural machinery.

Regulatory network. Includes irrigation furrows, drippers, sprinklers, etc.

Classification

Thus, irrigation systems are divided primarily according to the method of irrigation and the design of the supply network. However, they can differ in other ways. Based on the nature of water intake, all such equipment can be classified into gravity and mechanical.

Irrigation rate

Of course, before installing any irrigation system, a detailed design is drawn up. In this case, first of all, the amount of water necessary to moisten the plants is taken into account. Installing too powerful equipment on a site leads, of course, to unjustified expenses. The use of a system of insufficient productivity will certainly cause a decrease in crop yields.

The amount of water required to effectively water plants is called the irrigation rate. In this regard, the project includes two indicators. The net irrigation rate is the actual amount of water in m 3 /ha required for irrigation. It is calculated taking into account the technology of growing a particular crop. The gross standard includes net plus losses in the conductive network and on the field itself.

Bottom line

Some novice gardeners turn to specialists with the following request: “Explain the meaning of the word “irrigation”.” In principle, this term, as we found out, does not have any complex etymology. It comes from the word “dew” and means, in essence, the same thing as “watering”. Irrigation can be carried out using different methods. But in any case, the main goal of creating such systems is, of course, to provide plants with sufficient moisture throughout the entire season.

MUNICIPAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION VERKH-KARGAT SECONDARY SCHOOL

WORK THEME

Soil irrigation. Wind and water erosion

abstract

Performed:

Belikova Evgenia Gennadievna

Occupation: Geography teacher

Place of work: MKOU Verkh-Kargatskaya secondary school

Verkh-Kargat 2015

Content

Introduction ________________________________________________ 3

clause 1. Soil irrigation_______________________________________________5

1.1 Basic methods of irrigation__________________________5

1.2 Impact of irrigation on soil__________________________11

clause 2. Water and wind soil erosion______________________________12

2.1 Water erosion___________________________________15

2.2 Wind erosion_____________________________________________17

clause 3. Measures to combat soil erosion__________________19

3.1 Protection against water erosion______________________________________19

3.2 Fighting wind erosion__________________________________________20

Conclusion _____________________________________________________23

References _____________________________________________25

Applications_____________________________________________26

Introduction

Soil is a colossal natural resource that provides humans with food, animals with feed, and industry with raw materials. It was created over centuries and millennia. To use soil correctly, you need to know how it was formed, its structure, composition and properties. The soil has a special property - fertility; it serves as the basis for agriculture in all countries. When properly exploited, the soil not only does not lose its properties, but also improves them and becomes more fertile. The value of soil is determined not only by its economic importance for rural, forestry and other sectors of the national economy. It is determined by the irreplaceable ecological role of soil as the most important component of all terrestrial biocenoses and the Earth’s biosphere as a whole. Through the soil cover of the Earth there are numerous ecological connections of all organisms living on earth (including humans) with the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Soil is the top layer of land, formed under the influence of plants, animals, microorganisms and climate from the parent rocks on which it is located. This is an important and complex component of the biosphere, closely connected with its other parts. Under normal natural conditions, all processes occurring in the soil are in balance. But often people are to blame for disturbing the equilibrium state of the soil. As a result of the development of human economic activity, pollution occurs, changes in the composition of the soil and even its destruction. Currently, there is less than one hectare of arable land for every inhabitant of our planet. And these small areas continue to shrink due to inept human economic activities. Irrigation in combination with other agricultural activities is the main factor in creating optimal living conditions for fruit and berry crops. It promotes earlier entry of plants into fruiting, increases durability, increases winter hardiness and productivity of plantings. Irrigation is an important factor in the positive impact on the microclimate of the ground layer of air and ensuring the vital activity and high productivity of fruit plants. Irrigation is the artificial moistening of the soil to obtain high and sustainable crop yields. Huge areas of fertile land are destroyed during mining operations and during the construction of enterprises and cities. Destruction of forests and natural grass cover, repeated plowing of the land without following the rules of agricultural technology leads to soil erosion - destruction and washing away of the fertile layer by water and wind. Erosion has now become a worldwide evil. The widespread use of land, especially increased during the era of scientific and technological revolution, led to an increase in the spread of water and wind erosion (deflation). Under their influence, soil aggregates are removed (by water or wind) from the upper, most valuable layer of soil, which leads to a decrease in its fertility. Water and wind erosion, causing depletion of soil resources, are a dangerous environmental factor. The total area of land subject to water and wind erosion is measured in many millions of hectares. According to available estimates, 31% of land is susceptible to water erosion, and 34% to wind erosion. Indirect evidence of the increased scale of water and wind erosion in the era of scientific and technological revolution is the increase in solid runoff by rivers into the ocean, which is now estimated at 60 billion tons, although 30 years ago this value was almost 2 times less. Total agricultural land use (including pastures and hayfields) is about 1/3 of the land. As a result of water and wind erosion, about 430 million hectares of land have been damaged worldwide, and if the current scale of erosion continues, this value could double by the end of the century.

1. Soil irrigation

In our country, the vast majority of industrial gardens receive only 300-600 mm of precipitation, which is clearly not enough to create high annual yields, so irrigating gardens is not only desirable, but also a mandatory practice. Studies by experimental institutions, as well as observations on state and collective farms, have shown that irrigation increases the productivity of gardens by 1.5-2 times not only in the southern, but also in the middle and northern zones of the country. It is important to provide plantings with moisture in a timely manner and maintain optimal water conditions all year round. Therefore, both irrigation and maximum conservation of soil moisture throughout the year are of great importance. It is necessary to make maximum use of local water resources - surface and underground (artesian wells), create reservoirs and ponds of any size, and also save spring flood and storm drains.

1.1 Basic methods of irrigation.

A prerequisite for good growth and fruiting of plants is regular watering. The rates and timing of watering depend on the climate, the type and age of the plants grown, as well as the type of soil. For example, light soils with a high content of sand or lime, unlike clay soils, dry out very quickly, so during drought, watering should be done much more often. It is no secret that the richest vegetation is always concentrated near the water. It is this, as well as its quality and watering system, that are of utmost importance for the normal functioning of plants. After all, only water helps plants extract nutrients from the soil. Water also regulates the temperature in the plant, so even at high ambient temperatures, the plants’ own temperature does not change. In addition to water, ambient air humidity also plays an important role in plant life. In fog it is 100%. If the air is dry, increased evaporation of water from the soil and from the surface of the leaves begins, which can lead to withering of plants. It becomes clear that the lower the air humidity, the more often watering is required.

Usually, the timing of watering is determined by the change in color of the leaves or their partial wilting during hot hours. Soil moisture is also taken into account. If a lump of soil squeezed in your hand, thrown onto the compacted soil from about chest height, crumbles, then it’s time to water. The moisture content in the soil can also be easily checked using dug holes. You can find out whether another watering is required by the condition of the soil at a depth of 20-30 cm. With insufficient watering, a hard crust appears on the surface of the soil, so the plants will be forced to form lateral surface roots in order to reach the upper moist soil layer. Gardeners should remember that alternating long droughts with heavy watering does not bring any benefit to their green friends. You also need to know that one good rain is equal to one watering, and after a little rain you can postpone the watering period by a week. It is known that during the period of intensive growth, as well as during bud break, flowering and shoot growth, plants especially need watering. Irrigation networks are usually used for irrigation, the location of which is planned in advance during the development of the site. When drawing up a site plan, it is imperative to determine the main road that should connect to the access road. Main pipelines are usually laid along the boundaries of sites. Proper layout of the land and plantings will make it easier to care for them, including watering. Watering can be done in various ways. The choice of the most suitable one depends on climatic conditions, terrain, irrigation facilities and available equipment.

In modern conditions, the following methods of irrigation are used: surface, sprinkling, subsoil, drip. With surface irrigation, water is supplied through open channels and distributed to irrigated areas along an open irrigation network. When irrigating with sprinklers, water is supplied through closed pipelines and then distributed as rain. Subsoil irrigation is carried out from pipes with holes laid in the soil. Drip irrigation ensures a slow flow of water into the development zone of the plant's root system.

Subsurface irrigation.

Subsurface irrigation has many advantages. Firstly, it saturates the soil with air, which, in turn, contributes to better nutrition of the root system of plants, and therefore an increase in yield. Secondly, the top layer remains dry, which does not allow weed seeds to germinate. Thirdly, the dry top layer reduces the humidity of the ground layer of air, which is the prevention of fungal diseases of many crops. This, in turn, will reduce the use of chemicals. Fourthly, subsurface irrigation makes it possible to carry out work on the site during watering, since the top layer of soil is not moistened. Subsurface irrigation is widely used in greenhouses. There, humidifiers must be laid to a depth of 25 cm along the slope along the racks. The slope is needed to displace air with water. If the width of the racks is 80 cm, one humidifier is enough, but for wider ones you will need two, with a distance of 80 cm between them. In greenhouses and greenhouses, humidifiers can be used for both watering and heating. This will enhance the effect of subsoil irrigation. Heating is carried out using warm water or steam. It helps regulate the soil temperature, insulate the surface layer of air and thereby prevent plants from freezing.

Drip irrigation (micro-irrigation).

Drip irrigation allows you to provide plants with moisture in the required quantity in a timely manner, as well as save water. Thanks to this method of irrigation, material costs are significantly reduced. With micro-irrigation, water is supplied in the form of separate streams or drops with a diameter of 1...2 mm, and moistens the soil in a certain area mainly under the influence of capillary forces. Water spreads in both vertical and horizontal directions. Microirrigation is used in areas with a large slope and rugged terrain. Drip irrigation is suitable for any type of soil, but it is not always effective where the soil drains water easily. Micro-irrigation is widely used in areas with limited water resources.

Irrigation by sprinkling.

Sprinkling is artificially created rain that moistens the soil layer, the air above the soil, and the above-ground part of plants under the action of capillary forces. In addition, sprinkling does not deteriorate the structure of the irrigated soil. Another advantage of this method of watering is that the material costs are not too high. This method is used in areas with close groundwater, that is, where there is a danger of their rising. It is advisable to use sprinkling in areas with a large slope, as well as with complex terrain and sandy loam soils. Taking into account the absorbency of the soil, the intensity of rain is adjusted. In order not to disturb the soil structure and avoid the formation of puddles, raindrops should be no more than 1-2 mm. Large drops nail the leaves to the ground, and they become covered with a layer of dirt. To avoid this, it is necessary to reduce the diameter of the nozzle. The sprinkler irrigation system is easy to use, quite economical and helps to increase crop yields.

Sprinkler "Snail". The mechanism of operation of this installation is quite simple. Using a hose, water is supplied to the nozzle through the nozzle tangentially. In it, jets of water swirl, and a “rain stream”, taking the shape of an umbrella, comes out of the hole. The installation sprays water in a circle within a radius of 1-2 m (Appendix Fig. 1). After watering one piece of land, the “Snail” is transferred to another. In addition to regular sprinkling, finely dispersed (aerosol) sprinkling is also used. It is used under climatic conditions unfavorable for plants, for example during air droughts and hot winds.

During aerosol sprinkling, droplets with a size of 400...600 microns are formed. They adhere perfectly to plant leaves. The best effect is achieved with frequent or continuous distribution of water over the irrigated area. For aerosol sprinkling, nozzles are used, as well as dispersants of various designs. Equipment for fine sprinkling includes a 9-12 m high mast and a rotating rod with dispersants. The rod works on the principle of a weather vane, i.e. Yes, depending on the strength and direction of the wind (Appendix Fig. 2)

Surface watering

Surface irrigation is used to flush saline soils, as well as in cases where soil absorption leaves much to be desired. Thanks to it, it becomes possible to create a supply of moisture in the soil, and by reducing the amount of watering. This is most relevant in regions with hot climates. In vegetable gardens, instead of pipes, it is better to lay deep furrows. The flow of water and its consumption in this case are regulated by blind earthen, wooden or metal jumpers.

Surface irrigation is divided into:

Watering in ring holes and bowls (Appendix Fig. 3,4);

Watering according to checks;

Watering in furrows.

Two are widely used - surface and sprinkling, the rest have limited use or are at the stage of scientific development. Irrigation regime refers to the procedure for watering agricultural crops, which indicates the timing and number of waterings, and determines the irrigation rate for each crop in crop rotation. The irrigation rate during irrigation should be used sparingly. Irrigation at high rates can contribute to a rise in groundwater levels if they are close to them, which can lead to waterlogging or salinization of the soil. The timing of irrigation is linked to soil moisture, development phases and moisture needs of crops. The irrigation regime should ensure optimal water, air, nutrient and thermal regimes in the soil, prevent rising groundwater levels, soil salinization and satisfy the plants' need for water throughout the growing season, in order to obtain a high and sustainable crop yield. Irrigation is the artificial moistening of the soil to obtain high and sustainable crop yields. Irrigation systems are built to supply water to the fields. Irrigation is divided into moisturizing, fertilizing and special. Moisturizing irrigation creates the necessary water and air regimes in the soil. There are regular and one-time moisturizing irrigation. With regular irrigation, the soil is moistened at the right time and in the required quantity throughout the growing season. When water enters the irrigation network from an irrigation source by gravity, irrigation is called gravity irrigation; when mechanically lifting water from an irrigation source into an irrigation network (pumps, etc.) - by machine.

With one-time irrigation, the soil is moistened only once a year by flooding the area. If flooding is carried out in early spring with spring runoff water, then such irrigation is called estuary, and if water from canals is used during the period of high water in the river, it is called flood irrigation. Fertilizer irrigation is used to introduce fertilizer into the soil using water, which, being a fertilizer solvent, transports it into the moistened soil layer. Special types of irrigation include soil-cleaning, heating, etc. Soil-cleaning irrigation is used to remove excess harmful salts from the soil and to exterminate pests of agricultural plants, such as mice, chafer larvae and phylloxera, by flooding the cleaned soil with water. Heat irrigation is used to warm the soil by watering it with water warmer than the soil itself, which helps lengthen the growing season. This type also includes anti-frost sprinkling.

1.2 Impact of irrigation on soil.

Irrigation affects the microclimate, physical, chemical, biochemical and biological processes occurring in the soil. As a result of irrigation, humidity, temperature, heat capacity, mechanical composition, porosity, structure, water permeability and water-holding capacity, the adhesion force of soil particles, the content and distribution of chemical elements and compounds in the soil along horizons, the level of groundwater and its mineralization change. Wet soil absorbs more heat during the day than dry soil, and at night it emits less heat due to the humidification of the ground layer of air. The entry of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphoric acid into the soil along with irrigation water replenishes nutrient reserves. At the same time, irrigation water is a good solvent for chemical compounds contained in the soil. Irrigation has a positive effect on microbiological processes occurring in the soil. It slows down the mineralization of plant residues, promotes the accumulation of humus and activates the nitrification process. Irrigation also creates favorable conditions for the life and reproduction of earthworms, which contribute to the formation of soil structure. In cold weather, irrigation warms the soil and air, which makes it possible to neutralize the effects of frost down to -3.5 °C. Within 7-10 days after watering, the difference in air temperature, soil temperature and relative air humidity is smoothed out. The root system in moist soil grows quickly and uninterruptedly supplies plants with water and nutrition in the required quantities.Irrigation has a strong effect on plant tissue temperature. The work of N.A. Maksimov and other scientists has established that in cells saturated with water, synthesis processes prevail, and when the water supply is insufficient, hydrolysis processes prevail. It is important to ensure an uninterrupted supply of water to plants, which leads to the smooth progress of all physiological processes, including normal growth and fruiting of plants. In non-irrigated plants, there is a longer closure of stomata during the day, a decrease in photosynthesis, that is, less dry matter accumulates than in irrigated plants, and this can lead to weakened growth, reduced yield and even death of the plant.

2. Water and wind soil erosion

Soil erosion has long been and still is a problem for farmers. Modern science has been able, to a certain extent, to establish the patterns of occurrence of this formidable phenomenon, to outline and implement a number of practical measures to combat it.According to the forecast of the World Observations Institute (New York), at the current rates of erosion and deforestation, by 2330 there will be less fertile land on the planet by 960 billion tons, and forests by 440 million hectares. If now each inhabitant of the planet has an average of 0.28 hectares of fertile land, then by 2030 the area will be reduced to 0.19 hectares. Agricultural production in most of Russia is carried out under relatively unfavorable climatic and soil-hydrological conditions. And the main problems are soil erosion and drought. More than 54% of agricultural land and 68% of arable land are currently eroded or at risk of erosion. On such lands, productivity decreases by 10-30%, and sometimes by 90%. 6.6 million hectares of land were destroyed by ravines. With their growth, the area of arable land is annually reduced by tens of thousands of hectares, and the area of washed away land increases by hundreds of thousands. Under the influence of strong winds and unregulated runoff, fields become inconvenient for cultivation, and soils gradually lose their fertility - this is soil erosion. According to the definition of academician L.I. Prasolov, “the general concept of soil erosion refers to the diverse and widespread phenomena of destruction and demolition of soils and loose rocks.” Depending on the factors determining the development of erosion, there are two main types - water and wind. The rate of erosion exceeds the rate of natural formation and restoration of soil. According to scientific institutions, the soils of Russian agricultural lands annually lose about 1.5 billion tons of fertile layer due to erosion. Pollution of water bodies with water erosion products is not inferior in its negative consequences to the impact of the discharge of contaminated industrial wastewater.

Erosion is a natural geological process, which is often aggravated by imprudent economic activities. Based on this, normal and accelerated soil erosion are distinguished. Normal erosion proceeds very slowly, and therefore minor losses of the upper layers of soil from blowing and washing are restored during the soil-forming process. Such erosion occurs on soils whose surface is not affected by economic activity. Normal erosion is called geological. Accelerated soil erosion occurs in areas where irrational human economic activity activates natural erosion processes, bringing them to a destructive stage. Accelerated erosion is a consequence of intensive land use without observing anti-erosion measures (plowing of slopes, clear cutting of forests, irrational development of virgin steppes, unregulated grazing of livestock, leading to the destruction of natural grassy vegetation). More than 54% of agricultural land and 68% of arable land are currently eroded or at risk of erosion. It is estimated that over the last century alone, as a result of water and wind erosion, 2 billion hectares of fertile land for active agricultural use have been lost on the planet. The intensity of erosion in the modern era is generated by direct or indirect consequences of anthropogenic origin. The first include wide plowing of land in erosion-hazardous areas. This phenomenon is typical for most developing countries. However, the intensity of erosion has also increased in developed countries, including France, Italy, Germany, and Greece. Some areas of the Non-Chernozem Zone of Russia are considered erosion-hazardous, since gray forest soils are very susceptible to erosion. Areas in which water and wind erosion occur simultaneously are in a difficult situation. In our country, these include forest-steppe and partially steppe regions of the Central Chernozem Region, the Volga region, Trans-Urals, Western and Eastern Siberia with intensive agricultural use. Water and wind erosion develop in a zone of insufficient moisture with alternating wet and drought-resistant years (or seasons) according to the following schemes: washout - soil drying - blowing out, blowing out - waterlogging of the soil - washout. It is noted that it can manifest itself differently in areas with complex terrain: on slopes with northern exposures, water erosion predominates, on southern slopes, with a wind-impact effect, wind erosion predominates. The simultaneous development of water and wind erosion can cause particularly large disturbances of the soil cover. Water and wind erosion, causing depletion of soil resources, are a dangerous environmental factor. An important difference between these two types of erosion is that with wind erosion, only the mechanical elements of the soil are blown away, while with water erosion, not only soil particles are washed away, but at the same time nutrients are dissolved in the flowing water and removed. Erosion contributes to soil drought. This is explained not only by the fact that a significant part of the precipitation flows down the slopes, but also by the fact that moisture loss increases on eroded soils with poor physical properties. Drought in areas where erosion occurs is often called “erosive drought.”

Thus, the washout of mineral nutrients for plants, increased soil drought, deterioration of the physical properties of soils, and a decrease in their biological activity on slopes with eroded soils lead to detrimental consequences for agriculture. Small watercourses form in the ravines, which merge and carry solid sediments into large rivers. Groundwater also feeds watercourses, carrying dissolved minerals from rocks. Rivers, by deepening and widening their channels, contribute to the volume of transported sediment. The flow of water and rock fragments involved in the movement displaces channel and floodplain deposits in the river valley.

2.1 Water erosion.

Every spring, with the melting of snow, first small streams, and then noisy streams rush along the slopes into the lowlands, washing away and carrying away the thawed soil. During rapid snowmelt, gullies appear in the soil - the beginning of the process of gully formation. Ravines, fanning out from the central “core” - the beams, destroy fields, meadows, and cut roads. Often the length of the ravine reaches tens of kilometers, and the length of ravines reaches several kilometers. The ravine, which was not stopped in time, grows in depth and breadth, capturing more and more fertile land.

Water erosion is divided into surface (planar) and linear (gully or channel) - erosion of soil and subsoil.

Surface erosion occurs mainly in dry climates, since in wetter areas slopes are usually protected by vegetation. In dry areas, even small amounts of precipitation have significant impacts. After rain or as a result of snowmelt, the upper soil layer becomes saturated with water, and excess water flows down the slopes like a cloak, carrying soil particles with it. Such a washout, as a result of which gullies are not formed, is called planar, or rain, erosion. However, the soil microrelief is not perfectly smooth. In this regard, the surface runoff of atmospheric waters occurs in streams and rivulets of various sizes. Concentrated flows of melt, storm and rain water create small furrows and then ravines. Channel (linear) erosion proceeds faster than planar erosion, and as soon as a gully network is formed, active dismemberment of the earth's surface begins. Small watercourses form in the ravines, which merge and carry solid sediments into large rivers. Groundwater also feeds watercourses, carrying dissolved minerals from rocks. Rivers, by deepening and widening their channels, contribute to the volume of transported sediment. The flow of water and rock fragments involved in the movement displaces channel and floodplain deposits in the river valley. To a large extent, the development of modern water soil erosion on agricultural land is determined by the violation of the stable water regime during the exploitation of the land.Water erosion is caused by the runoff of melt and rain (storm) water. Therefore, during the year, the development of water erosion occurs in two periods. The first is during winter thaws and spring snowmelt. The second corresponds to the period of heavy rains (May - September). The extent of erosion processes is directly influenced by the total amount of precipitation, its type, duration, intensity, and time of precipitation. The development of erosion processes is indirectly affected by temperature, air humidity, as well as wind speed and duration. The scale of erosion during snowmelt is determined by the parameters of meltwater runoff, which are determined by the climatic characteristics of a particular area, the permeability of frozen soil and its resistance to erosion.

2.2 Wind erosion.

Another problem is wind erosion caused by dust storms. The wind raises clouds of dust, soil, sand, rushes them over the wide expanses of the steppe, and all this settles in a thick layer on the ground and fields. Sometimes sediments are up to 2-3 m high. Crops and gardens are dying. The wind blows out a layer of soil by 16-25 cm, lifts it to a height of 1-3 km and transports it over vast distances. The transfer of dust storms from the African continent to the American continent has been recorded more than once. After a dust storm that erupted in the Northern Caucasus and Eastern Ukraine, soil particles were found in the snow of Finland, Sweden, and Norway. In our country, dust storms most often affect the Lower Volga region and the Northern Caucasus. Wind erosion occurs in steppe regions with large areas of arable land at wind speeds of 10-15 m/s. (Volga region, North Caucasus, south of Western Siberia). The greatest damage to agriculture is caused by dust storms (observed in early spring and summer), which lead to the destruction of crops, a decrease in soil fertility, air pollution, and the entry of strips and reclamation systems. Everyday or local wind erosion of soils is local in nature and covers small areas. It most often appears on sands and areas with light soils, as well as on carbonate loamy soils. Large, enclosed basins in North Africa, such as the Qatar basin, have been deepened by deflation down to the water table, causing many to become salt marshes. The wind carries fine dust in suspension, and grains of sand usually roll and jump near the surface of the earth (this method of movement is called saltation). In deserts, corrosion is also common, occurring under the influence of gusts of wind carrying sand. As a result of the abrasion of rocks by sand, the slightest differences in the strength of the rocks are revealed, and corrugated and cellular (honeycomb) surfaces are formed. Individual stones, cut by the wind into an acute angular shape, are called ventifacts or windcuts. Wind erosion also occurs on beaches, in the back of which dunes are formed as a result of deflation of sandy beach sediments. Local wind erosion also occurs in winter, when strong winds blow away snow. In this case, the soil in bare areas, especially on convex slopes, quickly loses moisture and is destroyed by air currents. The most susceptible to wind erosion are soil particles 0.5 - 0.1 mm or less, which, at wind speeds at the soil surface of 3.8 - 6.6 m/s, begin to move and move over long distances. Based on aerospace images, it was revealed that dust storms in the Sahara were traced all the way to North America.

3. Measures to combat soil erosion.

3.1 Protection against water erosion.

The development of modern water soil erosion on agricultural land is caused by a violation of the stable water regime during the exploitation of the land. Conditions conducive to soil erosion can be eliminated by weakening the concentration of water flows and slowing down surface runoff by: increasing the absorption and infiltration capacity of the soil, retaining precipitation at the site of precipitation, draining or safely discharging the required amount of water into the hydrographic network.

To successfully combat water erosion of soils on lands used in agricultural production, a comprehensive system of measures is required that allows the use of surface runoff water to moisten fields and stop the development of erosion processes.

Effective protection of soils from water erosion is possible with the planned and systematic implementation of a set of anti-erosion measures, developed taking into account the specific natural and economic conditions of each region or farm.

The most important elements of the system of measures to protect soils from water erosion: - proper organization of the territory, creating the prerequisites for the effective use of erosion control means; - anti-erosion agricultural technology, providing daily soil protection and increasing their fertility; - forest reclamation measures to combat soil erosion; - hydraulic structures that prevent soil erosion.

The fight against soil erosion begins with a detailed study of the physical-geographical conditions and economics of a particular area or farm. Depending on the topography, soil cover and characteristics of economic use, different lands are susceptible to the destructive effects of water to varying degrees.

To combat water erosion use:

Soil protective crop rotations;

Forest reclamation and anti-erosion measures;

Water regulating forest belts;

Agrotechnical anti-erosion measures;

Deep plowing;

Crevice;

Mole;

Fertilizer;

Terracing.

3.2 Fighting wind erosion.

Wind erosion is one of the most significant factors negatively affecting the quality of fields. The most vulnerable in this regard are smooth, loose soils with small granules. Wind blowing at a height of 30 cm at a speed of 6 m/hour causes the soil to move. Any measures aimed at reducing wind speed over the soil surface will have a positive impact on its condition. Crop residues are the simplest and most reliable way to reduce wind erosion. Plant material traps moving soil particles and limits their avalanche effect. Minimum tillage technology, which leaves crop residues on the surface, reduces wind erosion and prevents the soil from being crushed into a dusty state. Standing crop residues are more effective at slowing down wind speeds than lying crop residues.

When cultivating the soil, you should strive to form large clumps. The uneven soil resulting from cultivation is very effective in reducing wind erosion. Ridges and depressions absorb and redirect some of the wind energy, and also trap flying soil particles. Ridges with a height of 10, 16-20, 32 cm are most effective for protecting the soil. In conservation agriculture, there must be an adequate amount of plant residues on the soil to minimize wind erosion. Such problems are most often created by drought or by growing a crop that leaves little residue on the surface. To stop the development of wind erosion, protect the soil and growing crops during drought or low amounts of plant residues, use field cultivation to create ridges, lumps on the surface, without waiting for rain. To effectively combat erosion, it must be carried out before it begins to develop, when the ground is still wet. If the soil has already begun to blow away, urgently treat it at the end of the area from where the wind is blowing. In this case, the main goal is to create as many lumps as possible on the ridges perpendicular to the direction of the wind. The equipment most suitable for wind erosion control depends on soil texture, moisture content and density. Newly sown row crops or newly emerged crops are most susceptible to wind erosion. They can be protected by cultivating the soil with harrows attached to the rear of the seeders along the rows of movement. In this case, the leveled surface is loosened. After sowing, a rotary hoe or cultivator can be used to break up the resulting crust and form clumps. The most effective time to create clumps is after rain, when the top 5 cm layer is wet. This is the first agricultural practice. The second way to urgently protect the soil from wind erosion is plant residues, manure left over from cattle, as well as irrigation to increase the soil's moisture content, facilitate its cultivation and create artificial barriers to the wind. Harvesting fundamentally affects the entire conservation agriculture system. Poorly done harvesting can destroy ridges, compact the soil, or leave crop residue in windrows, complicating subsequent field work. Carrying out harvesting using modern methods makes the fight against erosion as effective as possible and minimizes the need to cultivate arable land before sowing the subsequent crop.

Conclusion

The intensity of erosion in the modern era is generated by direct or indirect consequences of anthropogenic origin. The first include wide plowing of land in erosion-hazardous areas. This phenomenon is typical for most developing countries. According to the forecast of the World Observations Institute (New York), at the current rates of erosion and deforestation, by 2330 there will be less fertile land on the planet by 960 billion tons, and forests by 440 million hectares. Depending on the topography, soil cover and characteristics of economic use, different lands are susceptible to the destructive effects of water to varying degrees. Based on local characteristics, a soil erosion plan is drawn up, which identifies categories of land that are subject to varying degrees of erosion. Thus, to successfully combat soil erosion on lands used in agricultural production, a comprehensive system of measures is needed that allows the use of all possible agrotechnical, water-regulating, forest reclamation and other means.

Currently, the area of irrigated land around the world, according to expert estimates of the World Food Organization (FAO), is 236 million hectares, of which about half is in South Asia. About 60% of all irrigated areas of the world are accounted for by four countries: China - 85.2 million hectares (45% of the cultivated area), India - 36.4 (21%), USA - 16.5 (9%), former USSR - 16 .0 (7% of the cultivated area). FAO experts believe that by the end of the 20th century. The area of irrigated land in developing countries will increase by 50%, mainly due to the expansion of irrigated agriculture in South Asia, Africa and Latin America. In developed capitalist countries, a moderate increase in irrigated areas is predicted. Moreover, special attention is paid to saving water during irrigation, since its losses in open channels for filtration and evaporation are currently estimated at 40-60%. Irrigated agriculture in developing countries, with a meager dose of mineral fertilizers and modern plant protection products, cannot lead to a sharp increase in yield. The gap in the scale of application of mineral fertilizers from industrialized countries is still quite large. Thus, in India, 1 hectare of cultivated land receives 7 times less mineral fertilizers than in the USA. Post-harvest crop losses in developing countries are estimated at 25-40%, as a result of which the granary yield is the same percentage less than the biological one.

Bibliography:

1. Potapov V.A. Control of soil erosion in industrial gardens. M. Rosagropromizdat. 1990. 1

2. Lysogorov S.D., Ushkarenko V.A. Irrigated agriculture, M.: Kolos, 1981.

3. Novikov Yu.V., “Ecology, environment and people”; M., 1999

4. Dotto L., “Planet Earth is in danger”; M., 1988

5. Ivanov G., “In the fate of nature is our fate”; M., 1990

6. Oshmarin A.P., “Ecology”; Yaroslavl, 1998

7. Voronin N.G. Irrigated agriculture M., 1989.

8. Kruzhilin A.S. Biological characteristics and productivity of irrigated crops. M., 1977. Appendix 2

Fig.3. Watering in bowls.

Fig.4. Watering in ring holes

Water plays a huge role in the processes of life on earth, in the life of man and society. With its participation, many complex biochemical processes occur in living organisms. It is a component of all tissues of plants, animals and humans.

One of the conditions stimulating abundant growth green spaces, ensuring the comfort and attractiveness of garden and park areas, sports complexes, cottage and summer cottage areas is thorough and timely watering, high-quality soil moisture.

Soil capacity maintaining the required humidity for a relatively long period of time is characterized by a filtration coefficient or rate. For clay soils, the rate of water filtration is much lower than for sandy soils. Therefore, in clayey soils the intensity of evaporation is reduced and moisture is retained longer, which makes it possible to moisten the soil (irrigation) less frequently than in sandy soils.

Root system supplies plants with soil moisture. When the soil has a sufficient supply of moisture, then, due to the provision of plants with nutrients, temperature conditions and photosynthesis, the root system grows. As moisture reserves in the root layer are depleted, its access to plants also decreases. Root growth occurs due to their penetration into other layers, where the availability of soil moisture is higher. Even a temporary lack of moisture can slow down subsequent growth or even cause plant death.

At the same time, excess water in the root layer of the soil limits access to nutrients and oxygen to the plant, which is detrimental to its development.

Under natural conditions, the water factor is unstable and depends on precipitation. And where precipitation does not provide the necessary soil moisture, as is typical for the summer of central Ukraine, and a number of other territories, regular artificial irrigation (watering) is necessary.

Irrigation consists of a complex of technical, agrotechnical, organizational and economic measures, which are based on hydraulic engineering methods for the normalized flow of water into the soil.
Irrigation water improves the water regime of the soil, increases the water content of plant tissues, increases turgor (intracellular hydrostatic pressure), dissolves nutrients and makes them available to plants.
Irrigation influences the thermal regime, regulating the temperature of the surface layer of soil and the ground layer of air, allows you to control the growth and development of plants, enhance the growth of certain organs, including generative ones, and improve the quality of the crop.

In modern reclamation practice There are several main methods of irrigation: surface watering, sprinkling, drip irrigation, fine-dispersed, subsoil moisture and underground irrigation. If you compare irrigation methods by the number of tasks they solve, you will notice that some of the methods have a wider range of applications.

Let's take a closer look at irrigation, sprinkling and drip irrigation.

Sprinkling– a progressive method of irrigation. It allows for precise regulation of the soil water regime; moistening not only the soil, but also the air, which has a beneficial effect on the development of plants, does not destroy the structure and compaction of the soil.

Sprinkler irrigation involves supplying water to the irrigated area in the form of drops of artificial rain created by special devices - sprinklers. In this case, artificial rain is obtained due to the natural or forced spraying of water.

There is a lot of variety sprinkling methods, using a variety of watering equipment, however, the advantages of automatic sprinkling systems are undeniable. Most users attribute the benefit of an automatic irrigation system to the time they save by no longer having to spend manually watering or laboriously moving a hose around the garden. Others believe that the main advantage of an irrigation system is to stimulate plant activity and reduce water consumption. Still others see an irrigation system as the best way to invest in real estate, the value of which increases due to the increased attractiveness of their garden plot.

The advantages of an automatic watering system include:

Uniform distribution of water, achieving the required irrigation rates while saving water in general.
Irrigation is carried out at the most suitable time for this, for example, at night or early in the morning, when maximum evaporation of moisture occurs.
Saving personal time, since the need for the site owner to be present during irrigation has disappeared.
The ability to simply reprogram the controller to provide moisture-charging irrigation in the spring (autumn), as well as perform demonstration irrigation for guests.
Ease of preserving the system for the winter without dismantling the equipment in the fall and re-preserving it in the spring.

The main characteristics of both artificial and natural rain are the intensity, size of the drops and uniform distribution of rain over the area. Considering these parameters, it should be said that they have a significant impact on the choice irrigation regime.

In practice, there is an opinion about the need to save water, but this is not achieved by using economic sprinklers with extremely limited water consumption. Since a small flow rate over large areas of irrigation leads to insignificant rain intensity, and in order to achieve the irrigation norm, it is advisable to increase the duration of irrigation several times. And this costs electricity and time.

Considering irrigation intensity Along the length of the water stream, you can notice the unevenness of precipitation. For example, within a radius of 0.3 - 0.5 m from the installation site of the sprinkler, practically no precipitation is observed. And vice versa, at a distance of 0.7-0.85 of the jet length the maximum amount of precipitation falls. In other words, to avoid underwatering and uniform irrigation of the area along the length of the stream, it is necessary to install another sprinkler at a distance from the radius of action of the first, i.e., overlap. And we must not forget about this. Otherwise, among the beautiful green lawn, spots of yellow or orange color will stand out in the places where the sprinklers are installed.

When irrigated by sprinkling, the droplet size should not exceed 2-3 mm. This was taken into account when creating samples of modern sprinklers. In particular, for irrigating plants in winter gardens, greenhouses, providing overhead and tree-trunk watering, and creating a fog effect, micro-sprinklers and fan-type sprinklers with special nozzles - micro-sprays - have been widely used.

Drip irrigation– this is the most effective and economical way to water gardens, vineyards, flower and ornamental plantings, vegetables in greenhouses and greenhouses. The essence of this method is that irrigation is provided by slow (drop by drop) and long-term supply of water to the root zone of plants and maintaining optimal humidity in it throughout the growing season.

Advantages of drip irrigation systems:

The drip irrigation system supplies water evenly to all plants.
Non-irrigated strips between rows (for example, in a greenhouse) allow necessary work to be carried out at any time, even when irrigation is taking place.
A targeted, targeted supply of water prevents weeds from growing wildly.
Possibility of irrigating heavily rugged, irregularly shaped areas with varying soil permeability.
Acceleration of the process of plants entering the time of flowering and fruiting, and for agricultural crops a sharp increase in yield.
The drip irrigation system is constructed in such a way that the droppers are either directly built into the main plastic pipe.
Significant savings in water and labor costs (1.3-3 times).
Saving mineral fertilizers by 30-40%.
There is no secondary salinization and does not require the construction of drainage.
Possibility of irrigation from local water sources.
Possibility of round-the-clock watering, regardless of external conditions.
Reliability of drip irrigation systems. Most drip systems currently in use need to be assembled once and then operate for many years. The parts used in them are made of polymer materials that can withstand both tropical heat and winter cold.

Water is supplied through a pipeline system to the irrigation zone and through special water outlets - droppers - under each plant or row of plants.

Irrigation rates for drip irrigation are on average 25–45% lower compared to other irrigation methods.

With such irrigation, the most favorable water-air and nutritional regimes of plants are maintained in the soil, thereby ensuring the development and productivity of, especially vegetable crops. Compared to conventional sprinkling, it increases by 20–60% or more.

Droppers are usually placed on pipelines. Most often, droppers made of plastic microtubes are used in drip irrigation hoses with different frequencies of their location. The use of a particular hose depends on the water consumption for irrigation, the type of soil and the type of crop. In gardens, to supply water to one tree, 3-4 droppers or a drip irrigation hose with a distance between the built-in droppers of 20-40 cm is usually sufficient.

Manufacturers of irrigation equipment, using the accumulated experience in using this irrigation method when growing food of plant origin, primarily in arid zones, have developed many different types of drippers, drip irrigation kits, drip irrigation hoses and porous hoses, which are successfully used for irrigation.

Application drip irrigation associated with more careful water treatment and system design.

The considered irrigation methods are used to one degree or another when maintaining plants during landscaping and landscaping of various areas.

About the need for irrigation

Suffice it to say that in actively growing plants the moisture content is 3...4 times the dry matter weight. This indicates the need for watering for normal growth and development of plants.

Soils, having water-holding capacity, act as an absorbent of water obtained through precipitation or irrigation. Therefore, it is necessary to periodically moisten the soil as the plants grow through watering.

Thus, the optimal value of the irrigation rate will be equal to:

M = 100 a h n s (w -0.65...0.75 w), m/ha

Where: a is the volumetric weight of the soil, t/m3; h - depth of the soaked (root-inhabited) soil layer, m; n - unevenness coefficient equal to 0.9 ... 0.95; s—moistening area, m2; w is the moisture content in the soil, equal to the lowest moisture capacity.
The timing of watering is determined depending on the climatic conditions for different regions. In the southern regions, the first watering is carried out in early spring before buds begin to bloom and leaves appear; the second - after the leaves bloom and buds appear; the third - during flowering throughout the summer. Watering is completed in late autumn, during the period from the beginning of mass leaf fall until the soil freezes. In the central and northern regions (areas of unstable moisture), the first watering begins during the appearance of buds and the beginning of flowering of crops, since, as a rule, in these areas, before the beginning of summer, the reserves of water in the soil are very large after the winter-spring accumulation of precipitation. In addition, as a rule, during these periods the air temperature does not contribute to significant evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration of plants. The exception is years with constant high air temperatures, which set in from late April to early May. In this case, watering begins in early spring.