HELL. Gradovsky emphasized the political meaning of the concept of “self-government”. He was convinced that the state, transferring some of its functions to local governments, is obliged to provide them with the opportunity to carry out an “act of power” (that is, act as state power). He advocated granting zemstvos, within the limits determined by law, independence and power1.
V.P. Bezobrazov interpreted bureaucratic and self-government institutions as “dual bodies of the same state organism, different forms of the same power.” He saw the main drawback of the Regulations of 1864 in the fact that zemstvo institutions were not introduced into the general system of public administration, but were placed “next to it...” According to V.P. Bezobrazov, zemstvo bodies were given “a lot of will and no power " He explained their weakness by their lack of “government” rights2.
B.N. Chicherin interpreted zemstvos as legal entities that the state established to meet general needs. He recognized for them the significance of public unions, which are governed by “laws issued by the state and are under the control of state power, but exist to satisfy the special interests of certain persons or localities.” B.N. Chicherin pursued the idea that the state benefits by acquiring an assistant in the person of local government. It “relieves him of unnecessary burdens, fulfilling what without his help would fall on his own organs.” In case of insufficient efficiency of the activities of zemstvo institutions, “the state can, without taking matters into its own hands, come to the rescue... or fill the gaps with its own institutions, not in the form of a replacement, but in the form of completing and improving the public initiative”3.
Certain influence in the 19th century. used a legal theory that arose on the basis of the state theory of local government. Its supporters reduced the essence of local self-government to one main feature - self-governing units are public legal entities separate from the state. They believed that the rights of local government bodies are inalienable and inviolable for the state. Self-government bodies, in their opinion, implement the will not of the state, but of local communities. Communities have special goals and interests that differ from the goals and interests of the state. However, this theory had a number of weaknesses:
Þ the inviolability of the rights of local self-government bodies exists only for specific administrative bodies, but not for the state itself, which has the right to legislatively change them or take them away altogether;
Þ self-governing units, being subjects of the rights granted to them, just like public administration bodies, are subject to government control;
Þ it is impossible to determine criteria for establishing which functions performed by self-government bodies correspond to their own interests and which correspond to the interests of the state (the social theory of self-government also sought to distinguish between these two spheres).
The famous Russian lawyer N.I. Lazarevsky believed that each of the theories discussed above was correct “in the sense that it indicates a feature that is found in self-governing units and has significant significance for them, but each of these theories was incorrect in that it elevated the feature indicated by it to the main and exceptional". Based on these considerations, he formulated comprehensive definition of the essence of local government as such a form of decentralized government, in which “in one way or another, both real independence from the crown administration and the connection of these bodies with the local population are ensured”1.
The dual nature of municipal activities (independence in local affairs and the implementation of certain government functions at the local level) is reflected in theories of dualism of municipal government. According to this theory, municipal authorities, in carrying out relevant management functions, go beyond local interests and, therefore, must act as an instrument of public administration.
At the core social service theories The emphasis is placed on municipalities fulfilling one of their main tasks: offering services to their residents, organizing services for the population. This theory calls the welfare of the residents of the commune the main goal of all municipal activities.
Most modern scientists interpret local self-government as a relatively decentralized form of local government. In legal theory, local government is viewed, as a rule, through the prism of concepts such as deconcentration and decentralization.
Thus, the famous French jurist J. Wedel understands deconcentration as an organizational technique that consists of transferring important decision-making rights to representatives of the central government placed at the head of various administrative districts or public services.
There are vertical and horizontal deconcentration. Within the first, all powers to represent the interests of the central authorities at the local level are transferred to only one government official (as a result, deconcentration in the center is sometimes accompanied by a concentration of power at the local level), and within the second, several “centers of power” are formed at the local level with the distribution of responsibilities according to sectoral principle.
Decentralization, notes J. Wedel, consists of transferring decision-making rights not just to representatives of the central government, but to bodies that are not hierarchically subordinate to the central government bodies and are often elected by interested citizens1.
Thus, deconcentration and decentralization, being two types of transfer of power from the center to the localities, have significant differences. Deconcentration- this is only a management technique, which in itself is not equivalent to democracy, since it retains the entire administration at the disposal of the central government or its representatives. Deconcentration reforms, G. Braban points out, have a managerial, not a political meaning: geographically, the administrative apparatus is closer to the citizens, but they themselves are not endowed with any power2.
At decentralization there is a direct alienation of the powers of the state as a legal entity in favor of another legal entity, which is the local management team.
He wrote about the advantages of a decentralized state over a centralized one back in the first half of the 19th century. A. de Tocqueville in his essay “Democracy in America”3. He argued that the government, acting as the only guarantor and arbiter of people's happiness, creates only the illusion of its own
omnipotence in solving all problems. He has no choice but to take on the burden of thinking for everyone and overcoming all difficulties himself.
The position about the greater efficiency of decentralized public administration systems is confirmed by the findings of modern science, in particular the general theory of systems by L. von Bertalanffy and the evolutionary theory of J. Piaget. The latter substantiated the thesis that any systems - physical, biological and social - are self-regulating. Self-regulation acts as a set of actions of the system aimed at its self-preservation and development. The more complex and dynamic the processes in which any system is included, the greater the degree of freedom it must have in order to respond and adapt in a timely manner to ongoing changes and maintain sustainability. There is only one effective solution to this problem - expanding the independence of subsystems within the viability of the system as a whole. For socio-political systems, this means a weakening of the dictates “from above”, the development of self-government, primarily regional and local, while simultaneously democratizing governance.
Thus, local government is responsible two main social needs: firstly, the realization of the right of citizens to participate in the management of public affairs, and secondly, the creation of effective local authorities capable of satisfying both the vital needs of the population and the interests of national development. In this regard, the ideas of A. de Tocqueville are extremely important that the original source of power is not the state or even the people, but voluntarily uniting individuals who manage their own affairs. It is in such conditions that people develop genuine civic consciousness, a sense of duty and responsibility, and the ability to balance their needs with the needs of their neighbors and harmonize their interests. A. de Tocqueville’s ideal was a society functioning as a collection of many free and self-governing associations and communities.
In his essay “Democracy in America,” he wrote: “Communal institutions ... open the way to freedom for the people and teach them to use this freedom, to enjoy its peaceful character. Without communal institutions, a nation may form a free government, but it will never acquire the true spirit of freedom. Passing passions, momentary interests, random circumstances can only create the appearance of independence, but despotism, driven inside the social organism, will sooner or later reappear on the surface.”
How relevant is this warning for the young Russian democracy! Totalitarianism, driven inside the social organism, has manifested itself in such exaggerated forms that in practice little remains of the constitutional principle of local self-government.
By independently solving local problems under their own responsibility, local governments expect from state authorities the “rules of the game”, assistance in replenishing local resources if they are not enough to organize life in accordance with minimum social standards. The legal space in which local self-government would function normally, and its material and financial support, have been formed in Western countries for many decades, creating favorable legal conditions for the life of the local community. This is a long evolutionary path of development of local self-government, and their experience requires careful study.
Analyzing the past and present of local self-government, we can conclude that gradually, taking into account historical, geographical, political and cultural traditions, three models were most often used: Anglo-Saxon (English), continental (French) and mixed (hybrid). What is the vision and theoretical understanding of these models based on and what are the methodological prerequisites for justifying the Russian model?
In Great Britain, the birthplace of classic municipal forms, a a type of local government called Anglo-Saxon. One of the characteristic features of this system is the absence of authorized government representatives on the ground who look after local elected bodies. Municipalities are regarded as autonomous entities exercising the powers vested in them by Parliament. In the 19th century In Great Britain, the principle has been established that municipal authorities can only perform those functions that are expressly permitted to them by law. This predetermined the role of the British Parliament in the formation of municipal law. The legal framework for municipal government was created by private and local statutes, which were adopted by Parliament, defining the powers of municipal bodies and the basis of their relationship with the central authorities. From 1689 to 1832 Parliament passed more than 200 such acts, creating the basis for the passage of the Poor Relief Act in 1834, which is considered the act that laid the foundation for the modern system of local government. This act provided for the creation of a management system that constantly worked with a paid staff and became the main activity of all local authorities. Municipalities received the right to appoint officials and carry out various activities related to the eradication of poverty. In 1835 the Municipal Corporations Act largely established the legal status of 178 towns in England and Wales. This act provided for the election of municipal councilors, publicity of meetings, etc. This and subsequent acts created the modern system of British municipal bodies1.
Along with the Anglo-Saxon system of local self-government, a number of foreign countries have a municipal system, which is based on a continental (French) model of local government. The special principles of the organization of self-government in France, laid down at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, differed significantly from the principles underlying the organization of local government in England. France has always been characterized by a high degree of centralization of local government and self-government. This was manifested in the development of a system of administrative control of the central government over local authorities, bureaucratic subordination in relations between the center and localities, that is, the continental model represents a hierarchical pyramid through which various directives and information are transmitted and within which a whole network of agents actively works for the central authorities places.
Along with the Anglo-Saxon and French models of local self-government, an independent municipal system is usually distinguished as local (municipal) self-government in Germany (mixed model). Self-government, according to modern German doctrine, means that state tasks are solved by legal entities of public law. In other words, the state delegates part of its functions to self-government bodies. The Federation and the Länder, therefore, are not the only subjects of government: communities and districts perform the functions assigned to them either as institutions of self-government or on behalf of the state by order of a state body within the framework of the functions delegated to them. In Germany there is no federal law on local authorities: the fundamental principles and principles of self-government are set out in Article 28 of the Basic Law. The status of communities in Germany is characterized by the following provisions: the community performs all administrative functions on its territory under its own responsibility, except in cases where the law entrusts the performance of these functions to other management structures; the community regulates the scope of its activities through a charter, which must not contradict the law; the community has the right to independently solve problems at the local level under its own responsibility, but in accordance with the laws.
Countries such as Italy and Japan also differ in certain specific qualities of the municipal organization: the governor of the Japanese prefecture, elected by the local
by the population and considered the head of the local administration, performs a number of national functions1.
A comparative legal analysis of the differences in the models of local government organization discussed above in developed countries allows us to conclude that these differences are not fundamental. There has even been a certain rapprochement between them, taking into account the experience of implementing municipal reforms in France and Great Britain, begun in the 80s.
In addition, the historical experience of mankind shows that the most sustainable model is a self-governing society, where “each individual is primarily responsible for solving his own problems, voluntarily uniting with other individuals, as well as participating in organizations and relationships within the limits and on the conditions established by constitutions.” and other mutual agreements of people and adopted by the relevant governing bodies"2. This resolves the main essential contradiction between the objective need for interaction of people within the state in the implementation of public interests, on the one hand, and self-realization of their personal potential, their abilities, on the other, for the purposes of creating favorable living conditions in the eco-dialogue between man and nature.
State administration and local self-government are two sides of the social contradiction between the need for centralization and decentralization of power, where the leading party is local self-government. And the proof of this is a well-known fact of the emergence of the state and public administration on the basis of community management.
So, tribal community management in Russian lands in the 7th-10th centuries. was carried out at tribal gatherings, which gradually transformed in village gatherings, as well as in city councils.
For example, out of 50 princes who occupied the Kiev throne, 14 were invited to the evening1, for the period from 1126 to 1400. The Novgorod Council elected 275 mayors from among the most powerful boyar families and more than 80 princes. A council of gentlemen was elected in Novgorod, as well as a council of thousand. At meetings of districts (ends) and streets of the city, Konchansky and Ulychansky elders were elected. Citing the Novgorod Council as a naturally developing element of self-government, the author is far from idealizing it as one of the most democratic institutions in the history of society, since an appeal to the masses has always been an additional instrument of power, a decoration for the appearance of citizen participation in decision-making. The first known legal codes “Russkaya Pravda”, “Pravda Yaroslavichi”, “Long-Russian Truth”, as well as the chronicles “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Belozersky Charter” and others bear the stamp of community governance.
With the beginning of the unification of Russian lands in the 15th century. State power, strictly regulated from above, is formed. Under these conditions, elements of self-government remained almost unchanged in rural communities and units, and in the streets of cities (posads). In large settlements and cities, governors are gradually replaced by a system of local government institutions (provincial bodies) and officials (city clerks). In the middle of the 16th century. As a result of the zemstvo reform, in counties where landownership still did not exist, the peasants of the Black Hundred and palace lands, as well as the townspeople, received the right to choose from their midst elders (“favorite heads”) and kissers, zemstvo judges and clerks (“best people”). The peasant community continued to elect sotskys and fiftieths, on whom the elders and tselovniks relied in their activities. Gradually, elected local bodies, falling under the supervision of governors, turned into state employees.
The reforms of Peter I bore the imprint of the influence of Western Europe. In 1699, the townspeople received the right to elect burgomasters from among themselves. In 1718 Peter I ordered the restoration of the right of local urban estate administration, and in 1723-1724. City magistrates and town halls were created. However, these bodies, unlike Western European ones, were strictly controlled by government officials and soon after the death of Peter I “grew” into the structure of the Russian state.
In 1775, the government introduced a new reform of local government based on the decentralization of power, as a result of which local government institutions received greater powers. Almost simultaneously, the reform of city government began in accordance with the “charter of rights and benefits for the cities of the Russian Empire.” This reform divided the city population into 6 class categories; the primary body of class self-government in the city was the city assembly. Granting the right to vote and be elected was regulated by age and property qualifications.
“The city assembly elected the city mayor, burgomasters and ratmans to the magistrate, elders, judges of verbal courts, assessors from the city estate to general and verbal institutions”1. The meeting also elected the administrative body of class self-government - the General City Duma. These innovations were then used during the zemstvo reform of 1864, since as amended by the government of Catherine II, the reform did not work for long - until 1798, when the city estate administration was combined with police departments.
In the first half of the 19th century. self-government in cities was experiencing a crisis associated with the tightening of the police and supervisory functions of the state. Representative bodies such as city parliamentary assemblies and general councils ceased to exist. Their members were used for individual assignments by the Six-Party Duma, whose functions included supervision of trade in the bazaars and improvement of the city under the supervision of the governor. “The diminished importance of city self-government bodies caused indifference of the urban estates to service in estate institutions and evasion from it”2.
The heaviness and slowness of the state machine, the manifestation of the most inert features of bureaucracy, the evasion of the nobility and merchants from the civil service, as well as noticeable democratic changes and their results in Western Europe forced the Russian government to look for ways to reform the public administration system.
After the peasant reform of 1861, the need arose to revive rural community self-government. Peasant class institutions were created for peasants. At the meeting, the rural society elected the village headman, tax collector, sotsky, ten's (the latter performed supervisory and police functions). The volost assembly elected the volost elder, the volost court, as well as representatives to the preliminary congress for the election of councilors to the district village assembly, and resolved the economic problems of the volost. The volost government existed as a representative body.
Thus, the zemstvo and city reforms of 1864-1870. were based on the historical experience of community and city self-government in Russia, and also relied on borrowings from Western European experience. Moreover, its relative success is explained by the fact that the reformers did not blindly copy Western models, but introduced structures that were understandable to the people and “suitable for work in specific socio-economic and political conditions”3.
The current champions of the revival of zemstvo traditions in the organization of local self-government in the Russian Federation, along with positive aspects - the desire to rely on domestic roots, the desire to provide residents of towns, villages, villages, cities with broad powers to take initiative, simplicity and accessibility of presentation of projects
normative documents - there are also shortcomings: the idealization of zemstvos, reliance on outdated, questionably democratic institutions and an attempt to transfer them to the modern soil of Russia, which is closer to the experience of recent times, the experience of the Soviets.
Also at odds with the spirit of the times are attempts to justify the formation of representative bodies on an estate basis, reluctance to take into account the national and cultural characteristics of the regions of the Russian Federation, etc. At the same time, it is overlooked that the conditions for the formation of zemstvo institutions, the procedure for the appointment and approval of officials, the approval of normative acts strictly regulated and controlled by the state in the person of governors and presences1.
It is surprising to hear the statement of the chairman of the Russian Zemstvo Movement, E. Panina, that “the zemstvos were never built on a national or party principle, but were all-class bodies of representation”2. As an example casting doubt on the statement, let us turn to the documents: in the Regulations on the provincial and district zemstvo administration in Art. 16, note 3, we read: “Jews henceforth, until the current instructions regarding them are revised, are not allowed to participate in zemstvo election meetings and congresses”3.
Further, in the Nominal Highest Decree of March 14, 1911 “On the extension of the Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions to Volyn, Kiev, Vitebsk, Minsk, Mogilev and Polish provinces”, paragraph 10 reads: “In Dvinsky, Lyutsinsky and Riga districts, Vitebsk province in the first branches of the zemstvo electoral assembly and zemstvo electoral congresses include persons of Russian origin, the second - other persons; in the remaining districts of the Vitebsk province and in the districts of the Volyn, Kiev, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces, the first branches include persons who have the right to participate in meetings or congresses, by affiliation, with the exception of persons of Polish origin, and the second - persons of Polish origin"4 .
The same is in the note to paragraph 10, and to paragraph 11 in relation to congresses elected by the volost assembly5.
Similar legislation is available in the Regulations on the Public Administration of Cities. L.E. also speaks about this. Laptev: “At the request of the governor, persons recognized as unreliable were to be removed from office”1.
In conclusion, the attention of all zemstvo idealists should be drawn to the Temporary Regulations on the Volost Zemstvo Administration of 1917, which is built on much more democratic principles.
Another extreme point of view on the use of world historical experience is manifested in the views of modern “Westerners”, who tend to take the Anglo-American, German or French experience as the basis for organizing the system of local self-government in the Russian Federation and demonstrate a desire to see in our laws a mirror repetition of the European Charter of Local Self-Government .
Meanwhile, Russian local government has quite a large and contradictory experience. From the moment of the emergence of statehood in Rus', it remained unchanged for a long time only in rural communities in certain regions of the country and experienced constant oppression from the central government bodies.
The inclusion of local government bodies in the system of state bodies during the Soviet period did not at all deprive local government of the foundations of historical experience, nor did it destroy, as some jurists, historians and politicians are trying to prove, the principles of organizing local self-government, limiting them to the ability of citizens to independently resolve local issues. The dependence of local self-government on the desire or unwillingness of state bodies to “give it free rein” is present today in the same way as it was 500, 200 or 70 years ago. Only the importance of local self-government and the dependence of the political and economic power of the state on the integrity, development and organization of its forms have increased.
However, the experience of the development of civilization convinces us that the Frenchman A. de Tocqueville was right when he said more than 100 years ago that “communal institutions do for freedom what elementary school does for science; they make it accessible to the people, allow them to taste its fruits and get used to using it. A nation can introduce free government even without communal institutions, but it will not have the spirit of freedom.”2
Noting the need to achieve economic and political freedom as the basis for the prosperity of society - including through the development of local self-government - one should keep in mind: a) Russia is a unique country; b) Russia has its own historical experience of self-government in the form of rural communities, city (posad) public administration, zemstvo institutions and Soviets; c) the existing system of local government cannot be ignored; d) the process of reforming the local self-government system cannot be completed by command from above or within a set time frame, since it is the result of a certain evolution, an indicator of the state’s departure from the administrative-command management system and, undoubtedly, evidence of the maturity of citizens who are ready to assume full power and responsibility for solving local affairs;
e) a lot of useful things can be learned from the experience of other peoples, if you show the ability to learn and critically perceive it in relation to the conditions of the Russian Federation.
It would seem that the traditions of local self-government of pre-revolutionary Russia should have been developed in the practice of state building in Soviet Russia. After all, the socialist revolution, according to K. Marx, marks the process of the reverse absorption of state power by society. And in the organization of local self-government the problem of bringing power closer to the people is most clearly expressed.
However, the idea of local self-government, which presupposes a certain decentralization of power and the independence of self-government bodies, came into conflict with the practical tasks of the state of the proletarian dictatorship, which by its very nature is a centralized state.
The basis for the organization of local power was the principle of the unity of the system of Soviets as bodies of state power with strict subordination of lower bodies to higher ones. All Soviets (including local ones) acted as parts of a single system, the highest organizational principle of which was democratic centralism, which formally allowed for the independence of localities, but in reality manifested itself in the centralization and concentration of power in the highest echelons of the system of government bodies. Municipalism was rejected as a bourgeois principle unacceptable for the Soviet state.
So, the study of the genesis and conceptual models of local communities allows us to more clearly present the content of municipal science, formulate its modern theory and methodology, clarify the scientific foundations of municipal science and the modern system of training personnel for municipal management. These issues are becoming particularly relevant, but require additional efforts and innovative approaches, without which there can be no effective municipal governance.
If appropriate conditions for the development of abilities are not created, children are not provided with appropriate activities, sensitive periods for the development of certain abilities are missed, and other equally important factors are not taken into account, the abilities will not develop, and an irreversible loss of abilities may occur. For the development of abilities, a combination of various factors is important, here are some of them:
I. Psychological:
sensitive periods of function formation: every child in his development goes through periods of increased sensitivity to certain influences, to mastering one or another type of activity; for example, it is known that a child from 0 to 3 years old develops oral speech and thinking intensively, and at 5-7 years old he is most ready to master reading, music, mathematics, sports, etc.;
appropriate activity with the help of an adult (zone of proximal development, according to L. S. Vygotsky),
increased motivation and interest.
II. Material:
balanced diet (eggs, meat, milk, cottage cheese, cheese, vegetables, fruits);
the presence of complex toys, instruments (including musical ones), paints, albums, a computer, etc.
III. Social:
teaching methods.
parents (mother);
educators;
3. About the physiological basis of abilities. What is the physiological basis of abilities? There are many conflicting points of view, many hypotheses.
I will introduce you to the discoveries of Professor, Doctor of Biological Sciences Vladimir Pavlovich Efroimson (1908 – 1989), who belonged to the group of the oldest Soviet “geneticists-first conscripts” of the famous Moscow school of N.K. Koltsov. His great work (doctoral dissertation) is called “Biosocial factors of increased mental activity.”
It is dedicated to genius - one of the most amazing phenomena characteristic of the human race. This is an attempt by a great natural scientist, biologist, geneticist to find an approach to a natural scientific explanation of the riddle of genius.
Who is a genius?
Genius does what it must, talent does what it can.
Goethe wrote: “And if you don’t have this in you - “Die, but become!” - then you are only a mournful guest on a dark earth.”
The frequency of the birth of potential geniuses and remarkable talents is practically the same at all times, among all nationalities and peoples: one genius per 2 - 3 thousand, maybe per 10 thousand people. But this is the frequency of birth of potential geniuses. There are much fewer people who have developed and realized themselves enough to receive at least a high assessment. O'Henry, for example, has a story about how God was asked to point out the most brilliant commander of all times. And he pointed to a poor English shoemaker who was poring over old shoes. In this shoemaker, the greatest military genius died without showing himself.
In life, the frequency of those who have realized themselves to the level of recognition of their creations and deeds as genius is 1 person in 5 - 10 million people.
This is the topic of a separate lecture, because many questions need to be answered here: are geniuses needed? What prevents brilliant people from embodying their natural inclinations?
Diderot wrote: “Genius falls from the sky, and for one time when he meets the gates of the palace, there are 100 thousand times when he falls past.”
The very first point is that geniuses are born; first of all, innate talents and abilities are needed to become a genius, that is, inclinations (their combinations are endless).
Efroimson identifies 5 “stigmas” of genius, but prefaces their listing with the following thesis: “A good mother is a masterpiece of nature.”
It is the mother and maternal love that are the decisive factor in the development of a genius (For example, the fate of George Washington).
The childhood and youth of geniuses is a story of restraint, discipline and organization, shaped by maternal attention.
The role of the mother is also great in the formation of value systems.
Efroimson considers flexibility, resilience and energy to be innate qualities.
Curiosity, curiousity, and the investigative instinct disappear by themselves as highly age-related phenomena, so how much flexibility, perseverance must be shown, how much energy must be expended by the child in order to preserve those traits that are associated with creative curiosity.
Efroimson “selected” internationally recognized geniuses. There were 400 of them. Among them there is also their own “table of ranks”. He noticed that among the greats of this world, certain hereditary diseases occur quite often (more often than among other people).
1. In geniuses, tens of times more often than in the normal population, hereditary elevated levels of uric acid in the blood occur. Elevated levels of urate (uric acid salts) lead to gout. Gout is noticeably different from all arthritis and rheumatism: the deposition of accumulations of crystals of uric acid salts in the tissues is determined by touch, inflammation occurs around these deposits and the earliest and most frequent occurrence of acute pain in the big toe, which is almost absent with the deposition of other salts.
E. Orovan established in 1956 that uric acid, an excess amount of which in the blood leads to gout, is very close in its chemical nature (structural formula) to such well-known mental stimulants as caffeine and theobromine (found in coffee and tea) . The accumulation of uric acid in the blood serves to stimulate brain activity.
The body normally contains about 1 gram of uric acid. The gout body contains 20–30 grams of it.
If the increased level of urate in the blood is not accompanied by gout, then this condition is usually called hyperuricemia. Efroimson's list includes several gouty geniuses: Giovanni Medici, Cosimo the Elder, Lorenzo the Magnificent, Thomas More, Erasmus of Rotterdam, Mazarin, Churchill, Benjamin Franklin, Ivan III, Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, I.S. Turgenev, Beethoven - throughout his life a typical gouty trait manifested itself - a complete disregard for everything that was not related to business, to music, to creativity, even the sublimation of love with creativity; Michelangelo, Bernard Baruch, Rubens, Rembrandt, Renoir, Fielding, Stendhal, Maupassant, Pushkin, etc. Of course, gout alone is not enough. Giftedness required.
2. A hereditary form of disproportionate gigantism – Marfan syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by very long, thin limbs with a short, thin body, large hands and feet, subluxation of the lens, aortic aneurysm and increased release of catecholamines - natural substances, some of which are adrenal hormones (adrenaline, norepinephrine and some others). A particularly powerful release of catecholamines occurs during stress (strong mental and physical stress, which allows the body to overcome enormous levels of physical and mental stress).
But under stress, there is a sudden release of adrenaline into the blood, while with Marfan syndrome, the amount of catecholamines in the blood is constantly increased. Talented, gifted owners of Marfan syndrome are distinguished by enormous energy and the ability for intense and long-term intellectual work.
Marfan syndrome is the rarest. It occurs 1 time in 100 thousand births. Among 400 geniuses with this syndrome there are 9 people: ichthyologist Nikolsky, Chukovsky, de Gaulle, Liddell Hart, Andersen, Lincoln, Tesla, Abbe, Kuchelbecker.
3. Androgenic (also hormonal) mechanism of stimulation of mental activity - Morris syndrome. This is “testicular feminization” - a very rare hereditary syndrome (one case in 20 - 50 thousand births). It is caused by the presence of a male set of chromosomes, causing the formation of testes, usually easily palpable as a mild inguinal hernia in women. But with a male set of chromosomes, there is a hereditary immunity of somatic tissues to male sex hormones, which should normally affect these tissues. The result is a slender, strong, beautiful woman, but without monthly ailments and infertile. Those with Morris syndrome have mental energy, physical endurance and strength (for example, Joan of Arc - by the end of the 19th century, 2,117 major works were dedicated to her, in particular, 600 long poems, 200 dramas, 16 operas).
Consequently, an increased amount of androgens in the blood can have a tonic, doping effect. In men this phenomenon is called hyperandrogenism. Hyperandrogenism was noted in Peter I, Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov, Alfred de Musset, Balzac, Heine, Leo Tolstoy. Many of them had increased sexual tone until old age (Goethe). And if the biographies of many remarkable figures testify to their complete renunciation of sex, then in these cases we most often need to talk about the obvious sublimation of sexual attraction and its translation into creative energy (Kant, Beethoven).
Abstinence with high sexual strength is associated with creative inspiration. There is a well-known saying: “Of a prophet who knows a woman, God does not speak for 77 days.”
4. On the basis of manic-depressive psychosis, cyclothymic accentuation of character. Cyclothymics (unlike schizothymics) are characterized by a more or less regular alternation of different phases of mood, physical and mental tone. Phases of recovery, energetic activity, optimism and self-confidence are replaced by phases of decreased overall tone, decreased activity, relaxation, worsening mood, pessimism, even suicide: Van Gogh, Diesel, Roosevelt, Churchill, Goethe, Linnaeus, Coldridge, Pushkin, Gogol , L. Tolstoy (descendant of Pushkin), Schumann, Saint-Simon, Auguste Comte, Garshin, Dickens, Hemingway, Luther. It is known that hypomania and depression usually occur in 4 people per 1 thousand. In Efroimson's list of geniuses, this figure is at least 10 times higher - 4 people out of 100. Their biographies indicate melancholy, periods of despair, and suicide attempts.
A. S. Pushkin immediately noted the presence of 3 “stigmas” of genius: gout, hyperandrogenism, cyclothymic accentuation of character.
Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol was also a hypomanic cyclothymic. Everything he wrote is from 20 to 32 years old, and every spring and summer he was in a state of severe depression. Pushkin did not like spring and summer, since, in contrast to most people, cyclothymics have a sharp drop in mood and performance in the spring and summer, clearly rising in the fall. This seasonality is very characteristic of Pushkin and Gogol. L. Tolstoy experienced depression from 2 to 7 years.
5. The fifth “stigma” of genius is the size of the forehead, the height of the forehead.
Of course, a large forehead in itself does not guarantee the presence of high intelligence, but there is no doubt that the predominant development of the brain and especially its frontal regions completely legitimizes the formulation of the problem of the existence of some connection between a disproportionately large forehead and a large head with the level of intelligence, with genius, and talent. (no need to be embarrassed by the existence of giant-faced hydrocephalic idiots). These are Marx, Lenin, Engels, Beethoven, Liszt, Napoleon, Shakespeare, Voltaire, Goethe, Anton Rubinstein, Kant, Darwin, Lomonosov, Mendel.
Thus, some conclusions can be drawn. At the moment, science does not yet have accurate data on what abilities and inclinations are, what they consist of. Perhaps the inclinations are some properties of the nervous system - the degree of general activity, increased sensitivity of the nervous structures, etc. Perhaps this is some kind of special predisposition, for example, to the perception of sounds, colors, spatial forms, etc. The extent to which Whether the inclination will manifest itself and take shape depends on the conditions of individual development. Based on the results of this development, i.e., based on the available ability, it is impossible to say what the “contribution” of the deposit was. There are no ways yet to determine the extent of the participation of the genotypic factor in the development of abilities.
The formation and development of abilities is associated with the child’s passage through various sensitive periods with possible learning during these periods of the “imprinting” type. In gifted children, it is possible to synchronize several sensitive periods, usually replacing each other, then the opportunities for developing their abilities increase many times over.
An integral component of abilities is increased motivation. It provides intensive and, at the same time, naturally organized activity necessary for the development of abilities.
Review questions
What approaches to studying abilities do you know?
Define abilities and inclinations. How do you think they differ?
What types of abilities do you know? Define them.
Tell us about the biosocial factors of genius.
Name the factors influencing the development of abilities. Give examples.
What abilities do you have? What do you think contributed to the development of your abilities?
Rice. 36. Abilities (student G. Kasatkin, E&U-428)
Rice. 37. Abilities (student Yu. Goglidze, EiU-428)
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The Communist Party and the Soviet state paid great attention to protecting the health of the younger generation, considering it as the most important state task. In the USSR, state systems for protecting the health of children and adolescents and protecting motherhood and childhood have been created. It is characteristic that in pre-revolutionary Russia there were only 600 pediatric doctors, but in 1976 there were more than 96 thousand. The Constitution of the USSR guarantees the implementation of special measures for the protection of labor and women's health; creating conditions that allow women to combine work with motherhood; legal protection, material and moral support for motherhood and childhood.
In the pediatric service, the leading principle of the organization of Soviet health care, as a preventive focus, is especially clearly implemented. In the organization of child protection, medical examination is especially mandatory, which embodies the synthesis of preventive and curative medicine.
The constant and continuous process of introducing scientific achievements into the practice of children's health care is carried out simultaneously with the improvement of the entire system of organizing child health care. At the early stages of organizing medical care for children, children's clinics were created, which in 1948 were combined with children's outpatient clinics into single children's clinics. Specialized care is being developed, specialized departments are being organized, in which diagnosis, treatment, and nursing of sick children are at a high level, intensive care and resuscitation departments are being created, this is combined with the strengthening of the main link of all treatment and preventive work - the children's clinic.
The trend of staged treatment of sick children with chronic diseases is noticeably increasing: clinic - hospital - sanatorium. Of particular importance in preventive work among the child population is the development of a network of medical genetic services.
Much attention is paid to the training of nursing staff for children's hospitals. Textbooks and monographs are published. Many works of Soviet pediatricians have been translated into foreign languages. In the 60s 20th century a ten-volume manual on pediatrics was published, which reflects the main achievements of Soviet pediatric science and healthcare practice
Conclusion.
Soviet clinical medicine is developing in clinical, physiological and preventive directions. Previously discovered diagnostic methods and the technical equipment of the clinician are at a new, higher level of development.
The achievements of Soviet medicine are great in all its manifestations - in its connections with natural science, its philosophical dialectical-materialist concepts, the successes of science, the creation of numerous large scientific medical schools, wide practical, preventive activities, the development of public initiatives, the activities of societies, congresses, medical periodicals, involving workers in protecting public health.
Medical science and healthcare are inextricably harmoniously linked with each other. The state nature of Soviet healthcare largely determines the possibilities and paths for the development of medical science.
List of used literature
1. P.E. Zabludovsky and others. “History of Medicine.” Textbook. M.: “Medicine”, 1981.
2. Yu.P. Lisitsin “History of Medicine”. Textbook. M.: "GEOTAR-MED" 2004.
3. T.S. Sorokina “History of Medicine”. Textbook for students of higher medical educational institutions. M.: "Academy" 2005.
4. B.V. Petrovsky “Big Medical Encyclopedia”, volume 18,
M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1982.
5. Shabalov N.P. "Pediatrics". Textbook. S.-P.; SpetsLit 2002.
Control questions
1. Clinical psychology has a significant impact on the development of
other branches of medicine, except:
About psychiatry;
© traumatology;
© neurology;
About neurosurgery.
2. Theoretical and practical problems of which specialty cannot be solved
work without clinical psychology:
About herbal medicine;
© physiotherapy;
© psychotherapy;
About radiation therapy.
3. Who proposed the term “bioethics”?
© Heidegger; © Potter;
About Yudin.
4. Clinical psychology has a significant impact on the development of
current general theoretical issues of psychology, except:
About the analysis of the components that make up mental processes;
© studying the relationship between development and decay of the psyche;
© development of philosophical and psychological problems;
On establishing the role of the personal component in the structure of various forms of mental activity.
5. Which ethical model in clinical psychology received the most
development in the last quarter of the 20th century?
O Hippocratic model;
© bioethics;
Chapter 11. Theoretical and methodological foundations of clinical psychology ■ 317
© deontological model;
O model of Paracelsus.
6. What principle in clinical psychology can be specified as
etiology and pathogenesis of psychopathological disorders?
About the principle of unity of consciousness and activity;
© development principle;
© principle of personal approach;
© principle of structure.
7. Who coined the term “deontology”?
About Descartes;
© Spinoza;
© Bentham;
Chapter 12 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
Basic Concepts
The significance of the problem of full human development in the context of the localization of mental functions is determined by the fact that the doctrine of the systemic organization of brain activity is the basis for solving the most important issues of pedagogy, medicine and psychology. The complexity and versatility of this problem requires that its development be carried out in many directions, synthesizing the achievements of all related sciences, taking into account both the specific methodological and general theoretical specifics of the study of mental phenomena. Therefore, the subject area of research into the connection between the material organic substrate and the ideal mental contains concepts traditionally used in the anatomy of the central nervous system and the physiology of higher nervous activity, information theory and systems theory, general and experimental psychology, psychophysiology and pathology of the analytical apparatus, general pathopsychology, special pedagogy, philosophy and a number of other areas. From a general theoretical point of view, the relationship between the brain as a material source of the psyche and mental processes that are ideal in content can be explained using four categories.
Function category. The psyche is a function, an activity of the brain, aimed at maintaining the continuous adaptive process of the body to the external natural and physical environment, and of a person as an individual to life in a social environment, and the regulatory and creative components of this activity are only fragments of a more general process of life support. The morphophysiological unity of the brain is a form of spatio-temporal organization of the system, which itself, having a general functional goal of adaptation, is an organic element of a more general system - the whole organism.
Chapter 12. Neuropsychology ■ 319
objects and phenomena of the external or internal “physiological” world, objectively possessing certain quantitative and qualitative characteristics and their representation in the psyche from a concrete image to an abstract idea, undergo a multi-stage process of reproduction in material media (from the peripheral receptor apparatus to the evolutionarily and ontogenetically later layers of the cortex of large hemispheres) features of objects interacting with the body in the form of multiple recoding of their information equivalents.
Category of information. All mental processes are informative in nature, and the receipt of information (afferentation) and its processing by the brain (from an elementary sensory effect to conceptual thinking with its pragmatic and axiological aspects) leads to an increase in the orderliness of mental activity, and motor and behavioral activity realized through information efferent flows, actively reorganizes the environment or adapts the organism to it. Mental processes perform a control function, reducing entropy, and the assimilation of information and its channeling outward through behavior is accompanied by multi-stage transformations. These processes affect both operational information and information stored in long-term memory. The actually human and highest aspect of information relations is the sign mediation of the entire external environment, which presupposes the presence of meaning and value for the individual of one or another stimulation, as well as its inclusion in the semantic outline of objectified behavior.
The category of information in neuropsychology has one more aspect. It represents a certain organization of the states of its carrier - the brain, which provides the ability to regulate the functions of the organs of the system (organism) in which information processes occur.
Activity category. Any mental process is uniquely active, which leads to its explicit or indirect embodiment in real action or in a behavioral act. Phenomenologically, it is what “animates” the organism and can be externally or introspectively observed. In itself, this mental activity does not exist without a cerebral physiological basis, originating from general metabolic processes. Their energy component, in turn, comes from the external environment, is transformed and distributed in the performing part itself into flows serving the somatic and mental functions of the body.
It is obvious that none of the above categories separately, as well as their mechanical integration, can connect the psyche with its material carrier. They are different sides of a dialectically multifaceted
320 ■ Part 3. Clinical psychology
a long, evolutionarily changing, but holistic process of higher forms of life in the space-time continuum.
Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that studies the brain basis of mental processes and their connection with individual brain systems. In neuropsychology, there are several relatively independent areas, united by common theoretical concepts, but differing in the specificity of methods and tactical tasks.
Clinical neuropsychology - is the main direction, the task of which is to study neuropsychological syndromes that arise when a particular part of the brain is damaged. The object of research in it is the brain of a sick or injured person, and the subject of research is the cause-and-effect relationship between damage (tumor, hemorrhage, trauma - their location, volume) and the changes that have occurred in mental processes at various levels. For a qualitative assessment of certain mental losses, Luria developed a set of methods for clinical neuropsychological examination. Recent years have been marked by a new step in the development of theoretical and experimental research on the development and modification of methods for topical diagnosis of focal brain lesions (Wasserman).
Experimental neuropsychology sets as its goal an experimental, including instrumental study of various forms of disturbances in mental processes in local brain lesions, and also studies the distribution of mental functions in their evolutionary context (on the animal brain). It is often necessary to resort to traumatic methods of analyzing the connection between brain tissue and mental functions, as well as to draw acceptable analogies between the changes that occur in an experimental animal after the shutdown (destruction) of individual brain structures and the supposed changes in a person with a similar form of pathology. In addition, in experimental neuropsychology and neurophysiology they use the method of direct stimulation with electric current and bloodless methods - cooling, lubricating areas of the cortex and brain with aluminum paste and other chemicals that temporarily disable the functioning of certain areas.
Rehabilitation neuropsychology. Rehabilitation in general is a set of measures to restore lost or weakened body functions resulting from illness, injury or functional disorder.
The rehabilitation direction in neuropsychology deals with the restoration of lost higher mental functions, training and restructuring of impaired functional systems for the development of new psychological
Chapter 12. Neuropsychology ■ 321
ical means that presuppose the normal functioning of a person in the everyday, professional and general social spheres. This area includes an extensive set of methods and techniques with the help of which, based on the principles of the dynamic organization of higher mental functions, they carry out targeted effects on functional systems weakened or lost as a result of illness or injury, through which vital perceptual, cognitive-intellectual, emotional- motivational, motor and behavioral mechanisms.
Responding to the demands of practice about the need to consider the function in its present state, in the processes of its development and decay, rehabilitation neuropsychology has accumulated extensive experience in restorative work in the consequences of traumatic brain injuries, with various speech disorders, in the field of defectology, dealing with problems of education and training, as well as correction of the deficiencies of mentally retarded children and their social adaptation. Rehabilitation measures also play a significant role in cases of congenital or acquired defects of vision and hearing.
The range of techniques used by rehabilitation neuropsychology includes various systems of education, training and activation of weakened mental or motor functions, training for the formation or strengthening of sensory-perceptual apparatuses, attention, motor skills, development of modes of gaming, educational or work activities, selection of stimulus material, development methods of psychological diagnostics and monitoring the effectiveness of restoring function or compensating for a defect that has arisen in connection with brain disorders.
Psychophysiological neuropsychology - is responsible for the study of mental processes using objective methods using physiological indicators for analysis. These are mechanogram, myogram, plethysmogram, electroencephalography (EEG), which allows, as a result of modern computer processing, to obtain an idea of its “map”.
In addition to the traditional ones, in clinical settings such methods as magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography, etc. are used to clarify the localization of the lesion. Special techniques include the method of natural stimulation-induced potentials and stereotactic experiments with targeted immersion of the thinnest electrodes into individual neurons. In the clinic, this makes it possible, with the help of injected radioactive substances, to destroy pathological foci deep in the brain or to functionally “retrain” groups of neurons.
There are no clear boundaries between these directions, and new methodological arsenal and theoretical conclusions born within the framework of one of them become the property of others.
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