The system of declension of nouns developed in the common Indo-European era and was completely inherited by the Proto-Slavic language. Therefore, in the Old Russian language, nouns were divided into types not according to gender and case endings (as in modern Russian), but depending on what sound was at the end of the stem of the word in the Proto-Slavic language. From this point of view, the following types of declension were distinguished in the Old Russian language:
I– words with stems in - ā , -jā ,
II– words with stems in - ǒ , -jǒ ,
III– words with stems in - ŭ (-ъ),
IV– words with stems in - ĭ (-b),
V– words with a base in consonant.
The original types of declension were still preserved in the Old Russian language of the 10th-11th centuries.
This explains the fact that nouns of the same gender often have the same endings in their names. pad. units h. belonged to different types of declension in the Old Russian language. So, the words of M.R. table, house, guest, deer, now belonging to one type of declension (II), in the Old Russian language they belonged to four types, since in ancient times they had different bases. Compare:
Them. table (*stolo-s ) house (*domŭ-s) guest (*gostĭ-s) deer (*jelen) Gen.
table domou guests deer
Dat. table house and guests deerThe final vowel of the ancient stem is preserved in some case forms. It can be found in date pad. pl . h. and in shape
dat.-creation pad. duality h.
any type of declination. For example: Them. pad. units h. Date pad. pl. h.Dat.-TV. pad. duality h. For example: sister of sisters
A my sisters ma my sisters sister of sisters
table table ъ O my table house house ъ sister of sisters
m b O (ъ from *ŭ) house b sister of sisters
guest guest
(b ā , -jā )
from *ĭ) gost
I DECLINATION OF NOUNS (based on - The first declension included: 1) nouns female And- For example: (- male ) clans that had names. pad. units ending The first declension included: ia, depending on the hardness or softness of the preceding consonant (i.e., there were hardѣ softvarieties):malewife, rmaleka, fish, drowѥ zina, land, wheat, straw; elder, lord, in;
V (based on - Oh yeah, slough2) nouns (- kind of with ) : ending -ѧ Andyni;
slaves, mistresses, kun 1) nouns gyni, be useless, goddesses3) nouns : kind,
ending in -
II
judges, karmchii. Declension sample
Singular Hard variety
Soft variety
AND.
wife foot of the earthastrouialords
R. D.
IN. T.
with the wife's foot the earth builds the lord M.
marry the lands and build the mistresses
Singular Z.
Soft variety women nog lands build mistresses
AND. to wives to the feet of the earth to the lords
wife foot of the earthastrouialords Z.
R. wives with feet on the ground by mistresses
IN. wives on the feet of the lands of the strouiah of the mistresses
Dual
I.V.Z. T.
R.M. I'm building a land for my wife
D.T. wife nogama earth strawiama mistress
II DECLINATION OF NOUNS
(b ǒ , -jǒ )
The second type of declension included:
I DECLINATION OF NOUNS 1) nouns kind with endings -ъ, -ь, -и : city, fruit, personѣ k, can,horse, region, customs;
V average kind with endings -o, -e : lѣ then, village, face, mineѥ , field.
In the II declension, hard and soft varieties are also distinguished.
Declension sample
Hard variety Declension sample
II
Singular city drog village horse field
Soft variety towns drouga villages konia polia
AND. gorodou drougou village horse field
wife foot of the earthastrouialords city drog village horse field
R. city drougm village horse polm
IN. city drouz village horses poly
3. the city is friendlier than a horse -
Plural
Singular gorodi druzi village koni polia
Soft variety city drog sat down horse field
AND. city drag village horse field
wife foot of the earthastrouialords cities drogues villages kone polya
R. cities drogues villages horses poly
IN. towns and villages and horses and horses
In addition to the three types of declension of nouns accepted for study, there are several more categories in the grammar of the Russian language. The modification of a word by number, gender and case is designated by the term “declension”. This transformation forms new parts of the word or changes their original form. Only nominal parts of speech are subject to declension.
The belonging of a part of speech to certain types of declension is revealed by their inherent endings; the word must be in its original form (nominative case, singular).
First declension of nouns
The first type of declension of nouns refers to the indicated parts of speech, which are in the masculine or feminine gender, whose initial form (nominative case) is distinguished by the endings -a or -я.
Examples: line- For example: (female) , birch- For example: (female) , plate- For example: (female) , magnoli- I (female) , grandfather- For example: (m.r.) , dad- For example: (m.r.) , planets For example: (female) , category- I (female) .
It should also be taken into account that nouns also belong to this declension general kind(words whose gender is determined by semantic load or the context in which they are used).
Examples: confused For example:, roar- For example:, confused For example:, quiet- I, orphans For example:, dirty- I .
Depending on the word with which they are used, their gender changes: Rasteryasha Polina (f.) - Rasteryasha Dima (m.). Quiet girl (f.b.) - Quiet boy (m.b.).
Second declension of nouns
Masculine words ending in -o or -e also belong to the second declension: little house- my sisters, voice- e, little man- my sisters.
Neuter nouns that end in -о or -е are also parts of speech of the second declension: mountains e, lakes- my sisters, towel- e, goodbye- e, craft- my sisters, knee- my sisters, skill e.
Third declension of nouns
Examples: midnight b_, daughter b_, bed b_, help b_, area b_, youth b_, love b_, mouse b_.
Three declensions of nouns (table)
Indeclinable nouns
In particular cases, the rules for declension of nouns are violated. These words need to be remembered:
- neuter nouns ending in -мя, there are 10 in total: flame, time, burden, sign, and-me, ple-me, you-me, stir-me, here-me, that-me;
- child(cf. gender);
- path ( m. genus).
These words acquired this name due to the correspondence of their endings in the instrumental case to the endings of the second declension, but otherwise they have all the features of nouns of the 3rd declension. An example of the formation of new endings when transforming according to case forms:
- Nominative: path_; strem- I; dit- I; youth_.
- Genitive: put- 2) nouns; stirrup 2) nouns; children- 2) nouns; youth- 2) nouns.
- Dative: put- 2) nouns; stirrup 2) nouns; children- 2) nouns; youth- 2) nouns.
- Accusative: path_; strem- I; dit- I; youth_.
- Instrumental: put- eat; stirrup eat; children- to her; youth- Yu.
- Prepositional: about the way- 2) nouns; about the stirrups 2) nouns; oh child- And; about youth 2) nouns.
A special group includes nouns formed from other parts of speech and retaining their features. Such words include nouns with signs of adjectives, numerals and participles (worker, day off, subject, animal, worker, tailor, shower, second, subtrahend). The declension, which includes such parts of speech, is called adjective. According to it, the indicated nouns will be declined, as well as the part of speech whose characteristics it possesses.
Nouns that cannot be used in the singular make it difficult to determine gender, so they do not have it, as well as declensions: glasses, bran, yeast, vacations, perfume, Carpathians, fees, chess, swing, shadows, cream.
Indeclinable nouns also include words borrowed from other languages that do not change their ending in any of the cases: maestro, entertainer, kiwi, flamingo, cockatoo, lady, salami, kohlrabi, aloe.
Determination of noun declension
Video
This is a change of word by case. The system of case forms of nouns is called the noun declension paradigm.
The types of declension of nouns in the university course of the Russian language differ from the types of declension considered in the school course. At the university, as at school, there are three substantive types of declension . The difference lies in the numbering order of the declinations and, accordingly, in their names.
First of all, there are three substantive types of declension - first, second and third.
According to the scientific classification system first declension include masculine nouns with a hard and soft stem and zero inflection ( ocean, beast) and neuter nouns with endings -o, -e (cloud, sea).
AND. - ø, - o(-e) IN. - ø, -o(-e) (inanimate) -and I) (soul.)
R. - and I) T. - ohm (-em)
D. - y (s) P. - e
To the second declension include nouns female with endings -a, -ya (moon, earth), as well as a small number of masculine nouns with endings -a, -ya (grandfather, bunny, uncle).
This type of ending system:
AND. - and I) IN. - y (s)
R. - s(s) T. - oh (s)
D. - e P. - e
To the third declension include feminine nouns with zero inflection, having a base on a soft consonant or sibilant ( steppe, youth, night).
This type of ending system:
AND. - ø V. - ø
R. - and T. - (b)yu
D. - And P. - 2) nouns
Scientific and educational grammars, in addition to the three substantive declensions, distinguish adjective, mixed and zero declensions.
Adjective declension- This is a declension similar to adjectives. Substantivized adjectives and participles change according to cases in the same way as they changed when they were adjectives and participles ( teacher's room, ice cream, student).
This type of ending system:
Unit number Mn. number
husband. and Wed gender female
AND. - y/-y, -oh, -oe, -ø -y, -a/-y -y/-y, -i
R. - oh/-his -oh/-its
D. - oh/-him -oh -y/-im
V.I. (inanimate), R. (inanimate) - wow I. (inanimate), R. (inanimate)
T. - y/-im -oh/-y -y/-imi
P. - oh/-em -oh/-its
Mixed declension - This is a declination in the paradigm of which the endings of different declensions meet (mix).
Traditionally, the mixed declension includes 10 neuter nouns ending in -mya (burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown) and words way (m.r.). They are otherwise called indeclinable nouns. When declined, these words in the genitive, dative, prepositional cases have the ending -And(as in the third declension), and in the instrumental case - the ending -eat(as in the first declension).
AND. time path - ø child
R. times-and-put-and-children-and
D. times-and-put-and-children-and
IN. time path - ø child
T. from time to time, by the way, children
P. (o) time-i (o) put-i (o) child-i
To those who disagree also applies to noun child (s.r.). But the forms of indirect cases are singular. the numbers of this noun are perceived as obsolete, they have been replaced by forms of the word child.
Mixed declension includes feminine nouns ending in - iya (army), which in the nominative, genitive, accusative and instrumental cases are declined according to the second substantive declension (such as Earth), and in the dative and prepositional - according to the third substantive declension (such as steppe). The mixed declension also includes masculine nouns in -ii (planetarium) and neuter on -ie (movement), which in all cases, except the prepositional one, have the endings of the first substantive declension, and in the prepositional case - the ending -And(end of the third substantive declension).
AND. genius-ø station-i rank-e
R. geniuses of the station and ranks
D. genius of the station and title
IN. genius station rank
T. genius station-her title
P. (about) genius-and (about) station-and (about) title-and
Nouns - names of masculine surnames with suffixes -in, -ov belong to the mixed declension, since the endings in their paradigm combine the signs of the first substantive declension (all cases except the instrumental case), and the signs of the declension of possessive adjectives (in the instrumental case). Nouns - feminine surnames cannot be classified as mixed declension, because the paradigm of their endings completely coincides with the paradigm of declension of feminine possessive adjectives. This is the adjectival declension.
AND. Rostov-ø (Nikolai) Rostov-a (Natasha)
R. Rostov-a (Nikolai) Rostov-a (Natasha)
D. Rostov-oy (Nikolai) Rostov-oh (Natasha)
IN. Rostov-a (Nikolai) Rostov-u (Natasha)
T. Rostov-y (Nikolai) Rostov-y (Natasha)
P. (o) Rostov-e (Nikolai) (o) Rostov-e (Natasha)
When using such nouns in plural forms, all cases except the nominative have adjective endings:
AND. Rostov-s IN. Rostov-ykh
R. Rostov-ykh T. Rostov
D. Rostov P. (o) Rostov
Nouns - names of cities and villages of the same type are declined entirely according to the 1st declension model: near Rostov ohm, near Borodin ohm
Zero declination A.A. Zaliznyak identified as a special type of declension and attributed unchangeable nouns to this type. Traditionally, this group of words is defined as indeclinable words. However, since immutable nouns like coat, metro, cinema can be used with prepositions, i.e. form a prepositional case form, which serves to express case meanings ( near the metro, in a coat, about the cinema), and the case meanings of these words (bought a coat, invited me to the cinema) can be expressed syntactically, to the extent that highlighting the zero declension seems completely justified.
In the Russian language there is a special group of nouns that do not have declension indicators. This group includes the nouns pluralia tantum ( gate, scissors, perfume), which have only the plural form, do not have indicators of the gender category and are declined in the plural. The absence of a singular form and gender category does not make it possible to determine the type of declension.
Depending on the hardness/softness of the final consonants, the stems differ ending And ia types of declinations: oak, son - horse, beast; wall, fish - melon, dormouse; mouse - night(in the 3rd century, hard and soft varieties are characteristic only of nouns with a sibilant base).
Nouns with stems g, k, x, sizzling and ts refer to mixed type of declination: leg - legs, regiment - shelves, daughter-in-law - daughters-in-law, knife - knives, key - keys, fingers - fingers.
Declension types strictly differ only in singular case forms. In the plural, the differences between the types of declension are not clearly expressed, and in the dative, instrumental and prepositional cases there are no differences at all.
In hard declension nouns in the dative and prepositional cases of the singular, the final consonant stems are softened: country, about the country.
All types of declensions in D., T., P. plural cases have the same inflections. The forms I., R., V. cases have their own characteristics.
Plural ending system:
AND. - and (s), -a, -e V. = I. (inanimate), R. (inanimate)
R. - ø, -ov(-ev), -ey T. - ami/s
D. - am/-yam P. -ah/-yah
When declension of nouns in the plural form, animation/inanimateness is consistently expressed, while in the singular, animation is expressed only in masculine nouns of the 2nd declension ( to love books - to love sisters, to see cities - to see brothers, to see windows - to see monsters, to see steppes - to see mice).
Case ending options
There are cases when one noun in the same case has two endings - main and variant. The basic meaning is that which most words belonging to this declension have. A variant ending is an ending that occurs only in small word categories or in individual words. Variant forms of cases usually differ from the main ones either semantically, or stylistically, or simultaneously in both respects.
1. Endings genitive case -a/-i - -u/-yu: cheese-cheese, tea-tea, go-go.
Main ending -and I, variant - -у/-у.
2. Endings instrumental case singular feminine nouns of the 2nd declension: -oh/-her - -oh/-her: wall-wall, soul-soul, beauty-beauty.
Ending -oh/-ey is commonly used, neutral, and the variant ending -oh/-her usually used in book speech.
3. Endings prepositional case singular masculine nouns of the 1st declension: -е - -у/-у: on glue - on glue, in alcohol - in alcohol, on vacation - on vacation.
Main ending - -e.
4. Endings nominative case plural of masculine nouns of the 1st declension: -and/-s - -a/-s: turners - turners, mechanics - mechanics, engineers - engineers.
Main ending - - and/-s, variant -and I. Forms on -and I have a colloquial connotation and are used in professional speech.
5. Endings genitive case plurals of masculine, feminine, neuter and pluralia tantum nouns: -ov/-ev, -ey, - ø: orange-orange, tomato-tomato. candles, candles, everyday life, etc. The selection of the leading option is carried out for each pair separately.
For masculine nouns of the 1st declension, the main ending is the materially expressed -ov/-ev, variant - zero: five kilograms, five grams, a kilogram of tangerines, oranges, eggplants, tomatoes etc. Options with zero endings are colloquial or colloquial in nature. However a pair of boots, shoes, stockings; several Georgians, partisans; kilogram of apples, where zero-ending forms are normative.
6. Endings instrumental case plural of 3rd declension nouns: -ami/-ми. Variant ending -my characteristic of free use only of words daughter - daughters, door - doors, horse - horses.
Declension of nouns
Declension is the change of words of various parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, participles) according to cases and numbers. Nouns in Russian have three main types of declension, which are reflected in the table below. If you need numerals, you can read about declension of numerals in another article.
The main types of declension of nouns in Russian
|
Declension type |
Explanations and examples |
Note |
|
1st declension |
Feminine, masculine and general nouns with the ending -а / -я in the nominative singular case: wife, earth, servant, young man, bully. |
Nouns in -ia (army, Greece) have the ending -i in the dative and prepositional singular cases. |
|
2nd declension |
Masculine nouns with a zero ending in the nominative singular and neuter nouns with the ending -о / -е in the nominative singular: law, horse, village, field. |
Nouns ending in -i and -i (genius, mood) have the ending -i in the prepositional singular case. |
|
3rd declension |
Feminine nouns with a zero ending in the nominative singular: spruce, mouse, daughter, horse, joy. |
Nouns ending in the nominative and accusative singular with a sibilant always have a soft sign written at the end: mouse, daughter. |
In the plural, there are practically no differences between types of declension, so we can separately talk about the special declension of plural nouns.
On the spelling of case endings of nouns, see: Spelling of unstressed endings of nouns.
Cases express the different roles of a noun in a sentence. There are six cases in the Russian language. You can determine the case of a noun in a sentence by the question.
In addition to the main questions, the case of a noun can also be found out by auxiliary questions answered by the circumstances. So, the question is where? assumes the genitive case (from the store, from the camel); question is where? assumes the accusative case (to the forest, to the lecture, to the lesson); question is where? assumes the prepositional case (in the forest, at the lecture, at the lesson).
The following table will present the names of the cases of the Russian language, questions for each case and auxiliary questions.
(3rd grade) - table:
The nominative case is called the direct case, and all other cases are called the indirect cases.
|
1st declension |
2nd declension |
3rd declension |
Let's summarize the difference in declinations in the following table. |
|
|
Declension in plural |
||||
|
mood |
||||
|
mood |
mood |
|||
|
Declension in plural |
||||
|
times |
bully-oh law, |
in the mood laws |
||
|
from time to time |
about the army about the law |
mood |
time-ah Variants of endings for the nominative plural of masculine nouns
authors/shores
Some masculine nouns in the nominative plural may have a stressed ending -а (-я) instead of the ending -ы (-и). This is first of all:
1) many monosyllabic nouns such as forest - forests, silk - silk, side - sides, eye - eyes, snow - snow, etc.;
However, it is impossible to find strict patterns in the distribution of nouns according to their ending options, since fluctuations are observed in this part of the language. We list in the table below the most common regulatory options in which errors are possible.
The following most common nouns allow a double formation of the nominative plural:
Some nouns with different endings in the nominative plural have different meanings. Here are the most common words:
|
teeth (in mouth) roots (of plants) body (torso) camps (socio-political) sheets (iron, paper) bellows (blacksmith's) images (artistic) orders (knightly, monastic) belts (geographical) seeing off (someone) omissions (oversights) abacus (device) sables (animals) sons (of the Motherland) tones (sound) brakes (obstacles) flowers (plants) breads (baked) |
teeth (teeth) roots (dried vegetables) corps (buildings, military units) camps (military, children's) leaves (of plants) furs (cured skins) image (icon) orders (insignia) belts wires (electrical) passes (documents) invoices (documents for payment) sable (fur) sons (mother) tones (shades of color) brakes (device) colors (paints) bread (cereals). |
Variants of genitive plural endings for nouns
In the genitive plural, nouns can have endings - , -ov (-ev), -ey . There are also large fluctuations in this area of the tongue. We present in the table the most common regulatory options in which errors are possible.
|
with ending - |
ending -ov(-ev) |
with ending -ee |
|
British, Armenians, Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Buryats, Georgians, Ossetians, Romanians, Tatars, Turkmen, Gypsies, Turks; partisans, soldiers, hussars, dragoons, cuirassiers; felt boots, boots, stockings, boots, shoulder straps, epaulettes; ampere, watt, volt, ohm, arshin, micron, hertz, x-ray; knees, shoulders, numbers, chairs, logs, linens, fibers, ribs, cores, rods, kitchens, poker, shutters (shutter), fables, songs, gossip, domain (blast furnace), cherries, slaughterhouse (slaughterhouse), young ladies, hawthorns , villages, blankets, towels, saucers, waffles, shoes, roofings, shafts, weddings, estates, nannies, affairs; splashes, trousers, beads, vacations, pasta, money, darkness, stretchers, sleds. |
Kirghiz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Mongols, Tajiks, Yakuts; dresses, mouths, apprentices, socks; meters, grams, kilograms, hectares, rails; oranges, tangerines, tomatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, lemons; swamps, kopyttsev, troughs, laces, windows; frosts, clavichords, rags, rags, scum. |
guns, joules, candles (but: The game is not worth the candle); skittles, sakleys, strife, rickshaws, pashas, young men; everyday life, mites, mangers, yeast, firewood, people, bran, sleighs. |
Indeclinable nouns
The divergent nouns include ten neuter nouns in -mya (burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup, crown) and the masculine noun path. They are called heterodeclinable because in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases of the singular they have the ending of nouns of the 3rd declension -i, and in the instrumental - the ending of nouns of the 2nd declension -em/-em.
Nouns ending in -mya have the suffix -en- / -yon- in the genitive, dative, instrumental and prepositional cases of the singular and in all plural cases, and the words seed, stirrup, in addition to this suffix, have the suffix -yan in the genitive plural case - (seeds, stirrups).
We show the changes in differently inflected nouns in the following table.
|
Singular |
Plural |
|
|
time, seed, path- |
time-a, seed-a, put-i |
|
|
time-and, seed-and, put-and |
times-, seeds-, ways |
|
|
time-and, seed-and, put-and |
time-am, seed-am, put-yam |
|
|
time, seed, path- |
time-a, seed-a, put-i |
|
|
time, seed, way |
times, seeds, ways |
|
|
about times-and, seeds-and, put-and |
about times, seeds, ways |
Indeclinable nouns. Gender of indeclinable nouns
In the Russian language there are indeclinable nouns - words that do not change by case. These include foreign language nouns with vowel stems (coat, cafe, taxi, kangaroo, menu, Show, Sochi, Tbilisi), foreign language feminine nouns with a consonant (Miss, Mrs., Madame, George Sand's novel), Russian and Ukrainian surnames with -o and -yh / -ih and -ago (visiting the Dolgikhs, Shevchenko’s poem, read about Zhivago, with Durnovo) and compound words like general store, CSKA, Moscow State University, All-Russian Exhibition Center.
The case of an indeclinable noun is determined by the question and by the inflected words dependent on this noun (if any), for example: Take off (what? - accusative) your coat; You will be hot in this (which? in what? - prepositional) coat.
The number of an indeclinable noun is determined by the inflected words dependent on it (if there are any), by the verb (if there is one) or by the context, for example: These (which - plural) the coat is no longer on sale; The coat was (singular) very expensive; Ten coats (plural) were brought to the store.
Indeclinable nouns mainly belong to the neuter gender: popsicle, metro, muffler, cocoa, menu, taxi, sometimes to the masculine gender: coffee, penalty. The gender of many of these nouns can be determined by the following features:
1) the gender of the designated person or animal (for animate nouns): rich / rich rentier, old / old kangaroo;
2) generic (general) concept: wide avenue (avenue is a type of street), delicious kohlrabi (kohlrabi is a type of cabbage), sunny Sukhumi (Sukhumi is a city);
3) the main word underlying the phrase, from which the compound word was formed: a wonderful Youth Theater (theater for young spectators), a new hydroelectric power station (hydroelectric power station).
Degrees of comparison of qualitative adjectives
In accordance with your general meaning qualitative adjectives have two degrees of comparison, showing differences in the degree of manifestation of a characteristic - comparative and superlative.
The comparative degree denotes a greater manifestation of a characteristic in one object than in another, for example: This cake is sweeter than the cake (sweeter than the cake). The comparative degree can be simple or compound.
The simple comparative degree is formed from adjectives using the suffixes -ee(s), -e, -she. Before the suffix -e there is always an alternation of base consonants.
beautiful - beautiful-her (beautiful-her)
wise - wise-ee (wise-ey)
sweet - sweeter
low - lower
thin - thinner
Adjectives in the form of the simple comparative degree do not change either by gender, or by case, or by number. In a sentence they are most often predicates, rarely - definitions, for example:
This city is more beautiful than our native one (predicate).
Let's find a more beautiful place (definition).
The compound comparative degree is formed by adding the words more or less to the adjective.
sweet - more (less) sweet
low - more (less) low
The second word in the form of the compound comparative degree changes according to gender, case and number. In a sentence, adjectives in this form can be both predicates and modifiers, for example:
The weather today is warmer than a week ago (predicate).
Let's bathe him in more warm water(definition).
The superlative degree denotes the superiority of a given subject compared to others on some basis, for example: Everest - the tallest top in the world. The superlative degree, like the comparative degree, can be simple or compound.
Simple superlative is formed from adjectives using the suffix -eysh- (-aysh-).
wise - wisest
quiet - tish-aysh-y
Adjectives in the simple superlative form vary by gender, case and number. In a sentence they can be both definitions and predicates, for example:
Everest is the highest peak in the world (definition).
This crater is the deepest (predicate).
1. The words most, most, least are added to the adjective, for example: beautiful - the most beautiful, the most beautiful, the least beautiful.
In the form of a compound superlative degree with the word most, both words change by gender, case and number, and with the words most and least - only the adjective.
In a sentence, these forms can be both definitions and predicates.
We approached the most beautiful park (definition).
This park is the most beautiful (predicate).
2. The word all is added to the comparative degree of the adjective if there is a comparison with inanimate objects and phenomena, and the word all if there is a comparison with living objects or phenomena or if one of the objects is compared with all.
This house is the tallest in the area.
This house is taller than all the houses in the area.
This boy is taller than everyone else in school.
These forms do not change. In a sentence they are predicates.
How to distinguish between the simple comparative and the compound superlative of adjectives, adverbs and condition words
|
Adjective. |
||
|
In a sentence it often acts as a predicate, less often as an inconsistent definition and then refers to a noun. The music became (what?) quieter (predicate). We will send you microphones (which ones?) that are quieter (definition). This girl (what?) is the most beautiful of all in the institute (predicate). |
In a sentence, it refers to a verb and stands in the role of an adverbial manner of action. He spoke (how?) more quietly than always (circumstance). He draws (how?) more beautifully than anyone else in school (circumstance). |
It is a predicate in an impersonal sentence, denoting the state of a person or the environment. In this jacket you will (what?) be even hotter (predicate). At this time of year (what?) it’s dirtiest outside (predicate). |
Declension of numerals denoting whole numbers
Numerals denoting whole numbers vary by case and for the most part do not have gender or number.
Only the numerals two and one and a half change by gender. They have two forms of gender: one in combination with masculine and neuter nouns, the other in combination with feminine nouns.
two, one and a half bags, sat - two, one and a half cups
The numeral one changes by gender, case and number, like possessive adjectives.
|
Masculine singular |
Neuter singular |
Feminine singular |
Plural |
|
|
one-year mom'shandkerchief |
one village mom's ring |
one book mom's fur coat |
one sleigh mom's fur coats |
|
|
one year mother's scarf |
one village mom's ring |
one book mom's fur coats |
one of their sleighs mom's fur coats |
|
|
one year mother's scarf |
one village mom's ring |
one book mom's fur coat |
one sleigh mother's fur coats |
|
|
one-year mom'shandkerchief |
one village mom's ring |
one book mom's fur coat |
one sleigh mom's fur coats |
|
|
one year mother's scarf |
one village mother's ring |
one book mom's fur coat |
one sleigh mother's fur coats |
|
|
about one year mother's scarf |
about one village mom's ring |
about one book mom's fur coat |
about one of their sleighs mother's fur coats |
The numerals two, three, four have a special declension.
The numerals from five to twenty and the numeral thirty are declined as third declension nouns.
|
Declension |
|
|
five-, eleven- , twenty- , thirty- years, horses, foxes, books |
|
|
five, eleven, twenty, thirty years, horses, foxes, books |
|
|
five, eleven, twenty, thirty years, horses, foxes, books |
|
|
five-, eleven- , twenty- , thirty- years, horses, foxes, books |
|
|
five, eleven, twenty, thirty years, horses, foxes, books |
|
|
about five, eleven, twenty, thirty years, horses, foxes, books |
Numerals forty, ninety, one hundred, one and a half (one and a half) The first declension included: one and a half hundred have only two case forms.
The cardinal numerals denoting integers contain many complex words formed by adding the stems, for example: fifty from five + ten, six hundred from six + one hundred, four hundred from four + one hundred, etc. In these numerals from fifty to eighty and From two hundred to nine hundred both parts decline. If numerals denoting integers are composite, then all words are declined in them.
Let us summarize what has been said about the declension of complex and composite numerals denoting integers in the following table.
|
Declension |
|
|
sixty, three hundred-, five hundred- forty seven |
|
|
sixty, three hundred, five hundred forty-seven |
|
|
sixty, three hundred, five hundred forty-seven |
|
|
sixty, three hundred, five hundred and forty seven |
|
|
about sixty, three hundred, five hundred and forty-seven |
Declension of collective numerals
Collective numbers denote several objects as one whole. Unlike numerals, which denote whole numbers, and from fractional numerals, collective numerals can denote the total number of persons without being combined with nouns: Three entered (it is impossible Three entered or I drew two-thirds).
Collective numerals are formed from cardinal numerals from two up to ten using the suffixes -oi- (two (double-e), three (troy-e) and -er- (four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten). They are combined:
1) with nouns denoting male persons: two friends, five soldiers;
2) with nouns denoting young animals: seven kids, nine piglets;
3) with nouns that only have a plural form, as well as with the words guys, children, people: two days, four children.
Collective numbers vary by case. In oblique cases they have the same endings as plural adjectives.
The collective numeral oba has two forms of gender: the form oba in combination with masculine and neuter nouns (both boys, both villages) and the form oba in combination with feminine nouns (both girls). In oblique cases, this numeral has, respectively, the stems obo- and obo-.
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns (my, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, yours) answer the question whose?, in a sentence they are usually a definition and indicate belonging to the speaker, listener, stranger or any person (subject).
The 1st person pronouns my, our indicate belonging to the speaker(s): My answer was good; Our teachers went to the concert.
The 2nd person pronouns your, your indicate belonging to the interlocutor(s): Your car broke down; Your house was built in the last century.
In Russian speech etiquette the pronoun your, spelled with capital letter, used as a polite address to one person: Mr. Ivanov, your request has been received.
The 3rd person pronouns his, her, their indicate belonging to an outsider(s): His pen does not write; Her friends went to the seaside; Their child began to cry.
The general person pronoun his indicates belonging to any person: I finished my breakfast - You finished your breakfast - He finished his breakfast.
Possessive pronouns of the 1st, 2nd and general persons (my, ours, yours, yours, yours) change according to gender, case and number and are declined like possessive adjectives. This can be seen from the following table.
|
Masculine, singular |
Neuter gender, singular |
Feminine, singular |
Plural |
|
|
mom's wow |
mom's wow |
|||
|
mommy |
mommy |
|||
|
mom's |
||||
|
about mom's |
about mom's |
oh mommy |
about mom's |
The 3rd person possessive pronouns his, her, their do not change. They should be distinguished from the genitive and accusative case forms of the personal pronouns he, she, they by question and by their role in the sentence:
I saw (who?) her (addition) - the accusative case form of the personal pronoun she;
Here (who?) she is not (addition) - the genitive case form of the personal pronoun she;
My friend went to visit (whose?) her sister (definition) - 3rd person possessive pronoun her.
We show in the table how to distinguish personal pronouns his her And their in the genitive and accusative case from possessive pronouns of the 3rd person his, her, theirs.
Verb conjugations. Heterogeneously conjugated verbs and special conjugations
Conjugation is the change of a verb in persons and numbers. Verbs change according to persons and numbers in the present tense and in the future perfect tense. There are two different verb conjugations.
The I conjugation includes verbs that have the following endings:
Examples for I conjugation.
II conjugation includes verbs that have the following endings:
Examples for II conjugation.
On the spelling of personal endings of verbs, see: Spelling of unstressed personal endings of a verb.
In addition, in the Russian language there are heterogeneously conjugated verbs want, run, honor, dawn, as well as all verbs formed from them with the help of prefixes (want, run, honor, dawn, etc.), which have both the endings of the first and and the end of the second conjugation.
|
disdain |
||||||||
|
Note: due to the peculiarities of its meaning, this verb cannot have 1st and 2nd person forms. |
||||||||
Note 1. B literary norm It is also permissible to conjugate the verb to honor as a verb of the second conjugation: honor - honor - honor - honor - honor - honor.
Note 2. The verb I conjugation burn is conjugated as follows:
I burn - I burn,
you burn - you burn,
burns - burns.
Verbs formed from it using prefixes are also conjugated, for example: burn, cauterize, burn. The forms you burn, burn, burn, burn, common in oral speech are not normative.
Special conjugations include the verbs give, create, eat, as well as all verbs formed from them using prefixes (give, recreate, eat, etc.). These verbs have special endings that are not found anywhere else.
|
yes-m yes-im yes yes yes yes yes-st-dad-ut |
created by created by create it, create it created-st created-ut |
e-st ed-ite e-st ed-yat |
Some verbs of the first conjugation can have double forms of the present and future perfect tense: with and without alternations. Here are the most common verbs:
Degrees of comparison of adverbs
Adverbs in -о / -е, formed from qualitative adjectives, can have degrees of comparison, showing differences in the degree of manifestation of the attribute: spoke cheerfully - spoke more cheerfully - spoke more cheerfully than anyone else. Qualitative adverbs form comparative (more fun) and superlative (more fun) degrees of comparison.
The comparative degree of adverbs denotes a greater (smaller) manifestation of a characteristic, for example: My mother bakes cakes better than yours (better than yours). The comparative degree can be simple or compound.
The simple comparative degree is formed from adverbs using the suffixes -ee(s), -e, -she. Before the suffix -e there is always an alternation of base consonants.
beautiful - beautiful-ee (beautiful-ee)
wisely - wise-ee (wise-ey)
sincerely - sincerely (sincerely)
sweet - sla sch-e
low - neither and-e
thin - thinner
The compound comparative degree is formed by adding the words more or less to the original form of the adverb.
sweet - more (less) sweet
low - more (less) low
The superlative degree of adverbs denotes the greatest (smallest) degree of manifestation of a characteristic, for example: He jumped the furthest; This village is closest to the forest. The superlative degree of adverbs, as a rule, is only compound. Forms of simple superlative adverbs have practically disappeared from the language. There are only three outdated words left from the speech etiquette of the past: the lowest, the deepest, the most humble (for example: I humbly ask you, sir, to leave me alone).
The compound superlative is formed in two ways.
1. Words are added to adverbs most, least, For example: beautiful - most beautiful, least beautiful.
2. The word of all is added to the comparative degree of the adverb, if there is a comparison with inanimate objects and phenomena, and the word of all, if there is a comparison with living objects or phenomena, or if one of the objects is compared with all objects of a given class.
This light bulb shines brightest (of all things that shine).
This light bulb shines brighter than all (all other light bulbs).
He laughed more fun than anyone (in general, everyone who laughs).
Simple comparative and compound superlative degrees of adverbs, adjectives and words of the state category sound and are written the same: quieter, more beautiful; quietest, most beautiful. They should be distinguished from each other by the question and by their role in the sentence.
How to distinguish between the simple comparative and the compound superlative of adverbs, adjectives and condition words
|
Adjective |
||
|
In a sentence it is more often used as a predicate, less often as an inconsistent definition and then refers to a noun. The music became (what?) quieter (predicate). We will send you microphones (which ones?) that are quieter (definition). This girl (what?) is the most beautiful of all in the institute (predicate). |
In a sentence it refers to a verb and is used as an adverbial manner of action. He spoke (how?) more quietly than always (circumstance). He's drawing(How?) the prettiest person in school(circumstance). |
It is a predicate in an impersonal sentence, denoting the state of a person or the environment. In this jacket you will(what?) even hotter(predicate). This time of year(what?) It's dirtiest on the street(predicate). |
Equipment: poster with nouns (from “Chepushinka”), sheets of paper, felt-tip pens for working in groups, cards for individual work, computer program “Russian language, 4th grade”, series “Family Tutor”.
Goals. Students derive a generalized method of action to determine the type of declension of nouns and draw up a model diagram. Development of the ability to determine the declension of nouns using a compiled diagram-model, development of thinking and speech. Fostering independence, a sense of collectivism, will, and respect for the subject.
During the classes.
Organizing time.
Teacher. Today we are again having a lesson with our computer friend. We will continue to work on the topic “Three types of declension of nouns.” I think that you will determine the purpose of the lesson yourself. Write down today's date and topic of the lesson. Pay attention to the underlined spellings.
Vocabulary work.
Selective dictation.
Teacher. From the text of “Nonsense”, select nouns with unverifiable spelling and write them in the initial form, indicating the spelling.
By order of the ship's captain, lilac with a cloud was served for dessert today. What progress! For dinner there were only silver plates...
Checking the work.
Questions. What nouns did you write down? How were nouns determined? How did you act to put them in the initial form? What spellings did you indicate?
Updating knowledge. Creating a situation that leads to the formulation of a problem.
Teacher. In the previous lesson, you learned about three types of declension of nouns and learned the rule. Try to determine the declension of the nouns you wrote down.
Independent work to determine the type of declension of written nouns.
A moment of control and self-control. (A poster is hung on which it is written: captain(2), ship(2), dessert(2), lilac(3), cloud(2), progress(2), dinner(2), plate(1).)
Questions. Who succeeded? Who had any mistakes? Why did they arise?
(I forgot the rule, since it is very long. I made a mistake in determining the gender of the noun. I did not pay attention to the ending. I got confused about what to determine by what, etc.)
Children's formulation of a problem and its fixation.
Teacher. You have now assessed your work, seen your mistakes, and tried to explain their occurrence. Many cited the fact that such a large rule was inconvenient to use. And this is on at this stage already a problem. Who will voice it?
(How to help yourself quickly and correctly determine the declension of nouns?)
Let's record this problem on the board and in notebooks.
Formulating the purpose of the lesson.
Teacher. Maybe someone can formulate the purpose of the lesson? (We must learn to quickly and correctly determine the declension of nouns and understand the rule well.)
Teacher. How can you help yourself? (You need to make a plan. You can derive an algorithm for your actions, draw a diagram, etc.)
Physical exercise.
“Discovery” by students of a generalized method of action to determine the type of declension of nouns.
Teacher. I suggest working on solving this problem in groups. Carefully read the rule on p. 94 and, working “step by step”, find your solution.
The text of the rule given in the textbook.
Changing nouns by case and number is called declension. There are three declensions of nouns in the Russian language. This means that all nouns are divided into three large groups. The nouns of each group have the same endings in the same cases in the singular and plural and in the initial form.
1st declension
feminine gender,
masculine,
in the initial form -a, -ya country, land, Slava, uncle
2nd declension
masculine,
in initial form?;
neuter gender,
in the initial form -o, - e fire, window, field
3rd declension
feminine gender,
in initial form?
(includes b)
oven, steppe
Work in groups.
Defend your decisions at the board.
During the discussion of various solutions, students conclude that when determining the declension of nouns, it is more convenient to act using a model diagram.
skl. noun ------ n. f. ------ genus, windows. ------ skl.
(The model diagram is simultaneously written on the board and in notebooks and voiced by the children.)
Returning to the problem.
Teacher. Let's check whether the model diagram will help in practical work.
Primary consolidation.
Teacher. Choose nouns from the phrases and write them down. Using the model diagram, determine the type of declination.
Loading...